1 10 12 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/de0e12cccf9def964c22a8ed8681f73e.jpg d3a5c6dafd6bf8f2761dff03a55b748c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "A Crofter's House on the Moor," Isle of Skye Description An account of the resource A photograph from the Isle of Skye from the book "The Misty Isle of Skye" Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource J.R. Macculloch Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://hdl.handle.net/2027/inu.39000005762096 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Hathi Trust Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1910 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders, Olivia Turner https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/1f0dffaa3e21f3b9c689728d3e417472.jpg 3dd4c34bcfaa5c209a381c976a8124f9 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. Ives 1910, from "From Devon to St. Ives" Description An account of the resource A photo taken of a beach town in St. Ives, Cornwall. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alex Begbie, A.G. Folliott Stokes Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015063024148 Type The nature or genre of the resource Still Image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Hathi Trust Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1910 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders, Olivia Turner https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/839a0f0811da44b7456a6a4bcfe028ce.pdf 8147e5cad09d74a8a2bc99c25243a9c1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document Journal of the Ropa I Societp of Arts. No. 3,710. VOL. LXXII. FRIDAY , DECEMBER 28, 1923. All communications for the Society should be addressed to the Secretary , John Street , Adelphi , W.C. (2^ NOTICES. NEXT WEEK. Wednesday, January 2nd, at 3 p.m. (Mann Juvenile Lecture.) Dr. William Arthur Bone, F.R.S., Professor of Chemical Technology, Imperial College of Science and Technology, " Fire and Explosions." (Lecture I.) The lecture will be fully illus- trated with experiments. Special tickets are required for this course and for the Mann Juvenile Lecture by Mrs. Julia W. Henshaw, F.R.G.S., Croix de Guerre, entitled ' ' Among the Selkirk Mountains of Canada (with ice-axe and camera)," to be delivered on Wednesday, January 16th, at 3 p.m. A few tickets for both courses are still left, and these will be issued to Fellows who apply for them at once. COMPETITION OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS. Particulars of the Competition of Industrial Designs to be held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in June, 1924, can now be obtained on application to the Secretary, Royal Society of Arts. Over £1,000 will be offered in Travelling Scholarships and Money Prizes in the various sections, and the Society's Diploma will be conferred on any candidate whose work reaches a very high standard of artistic ability and shows practical knowledge of the materials and processes of his trade. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING. Wednesday, December 5th, 1923. Professor C. A. Seward, Sc.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge, in the Chair. The Chairman said that it was his great privilege to introduce to the Society the Director of Kew, who would speak about the many activities of the Royal Gardens. Dr. Hill had not presided for many years over the destinies of Kew as Director, but he had been associated with the Gardens for a long time past in another capacity. Before he went to Kew he was at Cambridge, and there the speaker had had the opportunity of being with him in the same Departments of that University. He left a School mostly concerned with pure science for an institution which was concerned with both pure and applied science - with pure science to the greater degree, although, of course, it was difficult to draw the line between the two. He had pleasure in calling upon Dr. Hill to read his paper. The paper read was : - THE WORK OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, KEW. by Arthur William Mill, M.A., Sc.D., F.Jti.S., -b.b.S., Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Before attempting to give you some account of the work of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, I feel it is essential to a proper understanding of the functions of Kew to consider for a few minutes the early history of the Gardens, how they came into being, and how their development as the Headquarters of Botanical Enterprise for the British Empire gradually materialised. As with so many of our National Institu- tions, Kew, as we know it to-day, was not evolved in any deliberate manner, or as the result of some carefully conceived plan in the brain of any far-seeing Empire builder. Its origin was due to the interest in horticulture of that eminent lady, Princess Augusta of Saxe -Gotha, widow of Frederick, Prince of Wales, who in 1760, under the guidance of the Earl of Bute, started a Botanic Garden of some nine acres in the vicinity of Kew House. Frederick himself would appear to have been interested in gardening pursuits, for after his acquisition of Kew House on a long lease from the Capel family in 1 7 30, he commenced a fresh arrange- ment of the pleasure grounds, and made additional plantations under the direction of the celebrated Kent. It was after Frederick's death in 1751 that Princess Augusta gave to Kew Gardens 87 This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 88 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December i8th, ms. the definitely scientific character they have ever since maintained. The date 1760 may be accepted as the commencement of the Botanic Garden, as it was towards the close of the year 1759 that William Aiton, who had been a pupil of the famous Philip Miller at the Chelsea Physic Garden, was engaged by the Dowager Princess of Wales to establish at Kew a Botanic, or, as it was then termed, a Physic garden. Princess Augusta died in 1772, but during the last twelve years of her life she was assisted in her botanical pursuits by John Stuart, third Earl of Bute, who was keenly interested in botany. This science, apart from his brief political career, was the principal occupation of his life, and his interest in botany has scarcely received the appreciation it deserved. It should, how- ever, be borne in grateful remembrance that he took a very active part in developing the botanical side of Kew. Some of the trees planted under his direction still exist, notably the fine Maidenhair tree (Ginkgo) and a Diospyros near the site of the Temple of the Sun, which among others were probably brought from the garden of the Duke of Argyle near Hounslow in 1762. That the collection of plants at Kew in these early days was a remarkable one is shown by Sir John Hill's Hortus Kewensis , published in the year 1758, which was an octavo volume of 458 pages forming a catalogue of the plants cultivated in the garden of Her Royal Highness the Dowager Princess of Wales at Kew. This catalogue enumerates 3,400 species, 488 being hardy trees and shrubs and 200 tender shrubby plants ; while in 1770 Sir John speaks of Kew as " that garden where every tree that has been seen in Europe is at hand." After the death of Princess Augusta, George III. purchased the freehold of Kew House and grounds from the Dowager Countess of Essex, and amalgamated them with the gardens of Richmond Palace, which had been the residence of George II. and Queen Caroline. Love Lane, which separated the two properties, was the old roadway from Richmond to Brentford Ferry, and the present Kew Road is its successor. The original Love Lane is still preserved in the Holly Walk in the Gardens, but though George III. was empowered to close the lane in 1765, it seems doubtful whether the two Royal Gardens were really united until about the year 1802. Many of the trees still at Kew, in the part which was formerly Richmond Gardens, were planted under the direction of Queen Caroline. With the acquisition by George III. of the two Royal Gardens and the appoint- ment of Sir Joseph Banks as Botanical Adviser, or in effect " Director " of the Royal Gardens, in place of Lord Bute, the " Golden Age " of Kew may well be said to have commenced. The King maintained the botanical character of Kew with even greater energy than did his Mother, and supported with keen interest the various botanical activities initiated by Sir Joseph Banks, which have resulted in Kew occupying the position it holds to-day in relation to botanical enter- prise throughout the Empire. To Sir Joseph was due that praetice, which has yielded such fruitful results, of sending out collectors to various parts of the British Empire and to other countries, which, after lapsing and being revived by Sir William Hooker, has in recent times been continued by the leading nurserymen and by private enterprise. In the year 1772, Sir Joseph Banks, being then President of the Royal Society, addressed a memorandum to the King with reference to sending Francis Masson, an under-gardener at Kew, to collect seeds and living plants at the Cape of Good Hope " for the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew." Masson made remarkably fine collections, and sent home over 400 species of living plants. At least one of his plants, the interesting Cycad E ncephalartos longifolius , still exists in the Palm House, while among others were Cineraria cruenta , the parent of our garden Cinerarias, and the wild Cape Pelargoniums, from which have been evolved our garden " Geraniums." From the long list of Kew Collectors one or two names deserve special mention. Among them, that of David Nelson, who was Assistant Botanist on Captain Cook's third voyage, and subsequently accompanied Captain Bligh on the ill-fated voyage of the " Bounty." The genus Eucalyptus was founded by L'Heritier - the French Botanist who came to England 1786-87, and studied the Kew collections - on a species (E.obliqua), which was found by Nelson in Tasmania. Then there is Archibald Menzies, who accompanied Captain Vancouver (1791-95), and brought home seeds of the Chilian Monkey Puzzle (Araucaria imbricóla), which Sir Joseph This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 89 Banks planted, some at his own place at Spring Grove, Isleworth, and the others at Kew. It is a pity that Sir Joseph's name is not still commemorated by the retention of the early name " Sir Joseph Banks' Pine," by which it was first known. Menzies also discovered Sequoia sempervirens , the Cali- f orni an Red Wood. I must also refer to Christopher Smith, who went with Bligh on his second successful voyage to convey the Bread fruit to the West Indies, and afterwards collected in India ; Peter Good, who was in Calcutta and Australia ; George Caley, who was appointed by Sir Joseph as botanical collector in New South Wales ; William Ker, who was sent to collect in China ; Alan Cunningham, who travelled as a collector for Kew, in Brazil, The Cape and Australia, and David Lockhart, who was the only survivor of the scientific staff of Captain Tuckey's Congo Expedition of 1816. These are some of the most famous of the earliest of the Kew Collectors. Three of these same men also deserve further mention, namely, William Ker, who in 1812 was appointed Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Garden, Ceylon, founded in 1810 ; George Caley, who was Super- intendent of the Botanic Garden, St. Vincent, from 1816 to 1822 - the earliest of our Tropical Gardens founded in 1765 - and David Lockhart, who was apparently the first Superintendent of the Botanic Garden in Trinidad, where a Garden was founded in 1817. Thus began that long and valuable connection, which still happily exists, between the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the daughter Botanic Gardens which have gradually been established in practically every British Colony and Dominion. A glance at the Kew Bulletin appendices giving the List of Staffs of the Botanical Departments at home, in India and the Colonies during the last 35 years, will show that gardeners trained at Kew are at the present time, or have been until quite recently, in places so remote as the Falkland Islands, the Fiji Islands, the Seychelles, Rodriguez, Central Africa, Hong Kong, Port Darwin, Australia, New Zealand, and, in fact, throughout the British Empire. One of Sir Joseph Banks' schemes was to found a Herbarium and Library at Kew. The present Herbarium and Library occupies the house originally known as Hunter House (the property of Mr. Robert Hunter), which it is believed was purchased for the King in 1818, at the instigation of Sir Joseph Banks, for the purpose to which it is now dedicated. A room on the ground floor was fitted with bookshelves, and no doubt the botanical collections brought home by the Kew Collectors were deposited in the building. Unfortunately, the King and Sir Joseph both died in 1820, and Kew suffered greatly in consequence. Sir Joseph's Library and Herbarium, including the botanical speci- mens brought home by the Kew Collectors, were bequeathed to the British Museum, and became the foundation of its Botanical Department, so that Kew, unfortunately, does not now possess the fruits of the labours of her earliest sons. George IV. at first took a good deal of interest in Kew, and adhered to the plan of adapting Hunter House to its present purpose. He also added considerably to the amenities of the Gardens on the Kew Green side, but in 1823 he sold Hunter House to the Nation. Notwithstanding this, how- ever, William IV., about 1830, granted its use to the Duchess of Cumberland for her life, and, on the Duke's accession to the throne of Hanover, it became generally known as Hanover House. Here the King of Hanover sometimes resided, but after his death in 1851, it remained unoccupied, and,in 1852 its use for Herbarium purposes once more commenced, thanks to the action of Sir William Hooker. The house itself now serves as our Library, while the Herbarium occupies two extensive wings which have been added to the north and to the west of the original house. The Herbarium contains a remark- able series of specimens of dried plants from every part of the world, representing especially the floras of the various parts of the British Empire. Between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 specimens and comprehensive collections of plant portraits, fruits and seeds are preserved in the Herbarium, while the Library, which is probably the finest botanical library in existence, con- tains some 30,000 volumes. The annvial additions of pressed specimens to the Herbarium amount to about 30,000 sheets. The death of Sir Joseph Banks, in 1820, was a serious blow to Kew, and though the activities which he initiated, and which received such warm support from George III., were continued to some extent after his death, there was no real progress in the development of the Gardens, but rather they suffered a steady decline. This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 90 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923. George IV. soon abandoned Kew for Windsor and Sir Everard Home appears to have assumed the task of directing the affairs of Kew, and used to meet at the house of Francis Bauer " the eminent men of the day for purposes connected with Botany and other branches of Natural Philosophy." Francis Bauer, F.R.S., it should be mentioned, was an Austrian who came to England in 1788 and in 1790 was, through Sir Joseph Banks' liberality and with the King's sanction, attached as Draughtsman to the Botanic Garden. He occupied the position for fifty years, until his death in 1840. This most essential post in connection with a Botanical Institution such as Kew has recently been properly recognised by Govern- ment, and a Botanical Artist is now one of the established officers on the scientific staff of the Royal Botanic Gardens. Sir Everard Home died in 1832, two years after the death of George IV., and, though William IV. took a warm interest in Kew, the Gardens and all that Sir Joseph Banks had laboured to achieve, languished, and their scientific importance was so lost sight of that the scientific botanists of the day appear almost entirely to have got out of touch with Kew. Collecting activities fortunately did not entirely cease, and some valuable additions were made, but the Gardens were still a private establishment. Visitors, however, had free access on certain days, thanks largely to Mr. W. T. Aiton (son of the first Curator, W. Aiton), who was Director- General not only of Kew but of other Royal Pleasure Gardens in addition. It was after the death of William IV., in 1837, that the position of the Royal Gardens became precarious, and their abandonment was seriously considered, so much so, that the Treasury in January, 1838, appointed a Committee " to inquire into the manage- ment, etc., of the Royal Gardens." This committee consisted of Dr. Lindley and two practical gardeners, one of whom was the future Sir Joseph Paxton. Without going into the full details of their inquiry, and narrating all that took place when Dr. Lindley's Report was presented to Parlia- ment in 1840 - though he reported in 1838 - it will suffice to record that after the dis- cussion in the House of Lords, the charge of Kew was removed from the control of the Board of Green Cloth, and transferred to the Department of Woods and Works on March 11th, 1840.* On the dissociation of the Department of Woods from the Office of Works, Kew, like the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, came under the control of H.M. Office of Works, but though the Edinburgh Gardens are still in the domain of the First Com- missioner of H.M. Works, Kew was trans- ferred in 1903 to the care of the Board (now the Ministry) of Agriculture and Fisheries, as far as its general administration is concerned. When this transfer took place, it was laid down " that the privilege enjoyed by the Foreign Office, Colonial Office and India Office of corresponding directly with the Director will be preserved to those Depart- ments," and I need hardly point out, that from the nature of the work performed at Kew, this very important privilege is highly valued by the Director of Kew. The outcome of Dr. Lindley's Report was the renaissance of the Royal Gardens, which dates from the year 1841, when, on April 1st, Sir William Hooker, F.R.S., Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow, was appointed Director of the Botanic Gardens. In the year 1841, W. T. Aiton resigned his position of Superintendent of the Botanic Garden - a post he had held for fifty years - and John Smith, previously Foreman, was appointed Curator, and was the first Curator of Kew as a Public Establishment. The continuance of the existence of Kew in these evil days seems to have been due rather to the interest of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, than to the popular agitation that ♦The following is the principal part of Dr. Lindley's Report presented to Parliament in 1840. "The importance of Botanic Gardens has for centuries been recognised by the governments of civilised states, and at this time there is no European nation without such an establishment except England. The wealthiest and most civilised country in Europe offers the only European example of the want of one of the first proofs of wealth and civilisation. There are many gardens in the British Colonies and Dependencies, as Calcutta, Bombay, Saharun- pore, the Mauritius, Sydney and Trinidad, costing many thousands a year ; their utility is much diminished by the want of some system under which they can all be regulated and controlled. There is no unity of purpose among them ; their objects are unsettled, their powers wasted from not receiving a proper direction ; they afford no aid to each other, and, it is to be feared, but little to the countries where they are established ; and yet they are capable of conferring very important benefits on commerce, and of conducing essentially to colonial prosperity. ... A National Botanic Garden would be the centre around which all these lesser establishments should be arranged ; they should all be placed under the control of the chief of that garden, acting with him and through him with each other, recording constantly their proceedings, explaining their wants, receiving supplies, and aiding the mother country in everything useful in the vegetable kingdom ; medicine, commerce, agriculture, horticulture, and many branches of manufacture would derive considerable advantage from the establishment of such a system. . . . From a garden of this kind Government could always obtain authentic and official information upon points connected with the establishment of new colonies." This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th , 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 91 its proposed abandonment aroused. The following extract from a letter to John Smith by Mr. Aylmer Bourke Lambert, a private gentleman keenly interested in botany, who seems to have succeeded to the role of Sir Joseph Banks in the affairs of Kew, is of interest in showing the part played by the Sovereign in the preservation of Kew. March 9th, 1840. ' ' You will not be a little surprised, and I think not less grateful when I tell you that your letter that you wrote me giving particulars of the origin of Kew Gardens, and the interest taken by the Princess of Saxe -Gotha, that said letter went to the throne, and (was) read by Her Majesty and Prince Albert, they were much interested in it. There is no doubt that was the reason Lord Ilchester came to Kew, as he is one of Her Majesty's house- hold." Sir William's charge, when he assumed office, comprised only 15 acres, yet his appointment inaugurated that new era in the history of Kew, which, though perhaps in some directions not so eventful as in the days of Sir Joseph Banks, has been a period of uninterrupted progress and notable achievement. These, then, were the traditions of Kew, and such were the labours of other men into which Sir William Hooker, in 1841, was called upon to enter. In that year, Kew was not, alas, the inspiring place created by Sir Joseph Banks, but a moribund and decadent institution waiting to be restored to its former eminence, a task for which Sir William was peculiarly fitted. It is no doubt his son and successor in office, Sir Joseph Hooker, who is generally thought of as the Director who re-established the prestige of Kew and succeeded in making it the centre of botanical enterprise for the Empire, but it must not be forgotten that practically every one of the proposals and schemes for the development of the work of Kew on the lines which are still followed, were conceived with remarkable foresight and set in motion by Sir William Hooker. In 1843 Sir William Hooker, as I have stated, reverted to the plan initiated by Sir Joseph Banks, of sending collectors to distant countries for the purpose of trans- mitting plants and seeds to the Royal Gardens. Among Sir William's Collectors should be mentioned W. Purdie, who was sent to New Granada ; G. Mann, who went to the Cameroons, Gaboon River and Fernando Po ; W. B. Baikie and C. Barter, who went to the Niger ; John (later Sir John) Kirk, to the Zambesi with Livingstone; Sir Joseph Hooker to the Himalaya ; Edmonstone, followed by B. C. Seemann, to Western and Arctic America in H.M.S. Herald, and the latter to the Fiji Islands with Col. Smythe's mission, and also R. Spruce who was sent to Ecuador for Cinchona seeds. It would be a long story were I to attempt to give in detail the history of the many activities of Kew, even with regard to India and our overseas Dominions and Colonies during the Directorships of the two Hookers, of Sir William Thiselton-Dyer and of Sir David Prain ; for the Director of Kew is also Botanical Adviser to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and is consulted on Indian botanical matters by the Secretary of State for India. Thus the shelves of the Director's office are filled with folios dealing with questions concerning the introduction • of useful plants to our Colonies and India from other regions, and with every sort of enquiry as to the world's economic products so far as they relate to the vegetable kingdom. The work of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, is divided up into four main divisions, only one of which, however, is generally known about and appreciated by the people of this country. This, I need hardly say, is the garden proper. To most people the name Kew Gardens, or as they should properly be called, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, represents a beautiful garden of herbaceous plants, trees and shrubs, and many greenhouses, some of which they find uncomfortably hot. To a select few, who, one is glad to say, are ever an increasing number, the Gardens are recognised as the place where the attempt is made to cultivate every variety of plant " that is pleasant to the sight and good for food," under the best conditions that Kew can provide, and they, together with those botanists who are also lovers of plants, fully appreciate the scientific order of the collections. These have been so skilfully arranged, thanks largely to the keen instinct for landscape effect possessed by Sir William Thiselton- Dyer and by the Curators of the Gardens, that the general public are scarcely aware that the garden lay out is governed by any scientific principles at all. One is tempted to believe that among our many student visitors there are some This content downloaded from fff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org 92 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923 . who have realised that the 4 4 Tree of Knowledge " also is to be found at Kew. The next department which commands a fair share of public interest, and also, one hopes, serves as a means of liberal education, is that of the Museums. Four Museum buildings now house the varied and extensive economic collections, which comprise examples of the economic products of the plants of the world. The Museum collections, though brought together with the definite purpose of illustrating the uses to which plants may be put, are really complementary and ancillary to the collections in the Herbarium and in the Garden, and one collection without the other would lose very much of its importance and value. The housing of the collections in four separate buildings, is an unfortunate arrangement as far as economical working of the Department is concerned, and also somewhat unsatisfactory since three of the buildings have been adapted to serve their present purpose and are not as well suited for the exhibition of specimens as they might be. The original museum collection, which was the first of its kind brought together for the purpose of exhibiting in systematic order the economic products derived from plants, was due to the foresight of Sir William Hooker. In 1847, owing to Sir William's representations, the fruit store- house belonging to the Royal Family, now Museum No. II., was, by Her Majesty's command, added to the Botanic Garden and Sir William's own private collection, which he presented to the Nation, formed the nucleus around which our present extensive collections have been built up. The objects exhibited could not be shown either by the living plants in the Garden or by the specimens preserved in the Her- barium, and the value of these collections has become increasingly evident iii the course of years, so that now practically every vegetable product from any part of the globe can be accurately determined. As soon as the establishment and aim of the Museum was generally made known, contributions poured in from all quarters of the world, and the original building became so crowded that application had to be made to Parliament for a new building for the proper accommodation of the specimens. In 1857, to meet this need, the present No. 1 Museum was opened. Here the economic products derived from the Dicoty- ledonous plants (including such well-known objects as cocoa, coffee, cinchona, rubber, tea, etc.), are displayed, while the products derived from the Monocotyledons, such as palms, bamboos, grasses, the various food grains and articles, such as mats, hats, vegetable ivory, etc., are exhibited in the original museum, now called Museum No. II. Thus it may now, I believe, be said with full truth that it is almost impossible to point out any Colonial product, however insignificant, which is not adequately repre- sented in the Kew Museums. No. Ill Museum, the home of Tropical Timbers in particular, was formerly the Orangery of the original Royal Gardens ; while No. IV. Museum, our most recent, acquisition, which contains a remarkable collection of British-grown timber, and the articles made therefrom, as well as a com- plete series of the fungus and insect pests to which trees are subject in this country, has been housed in Cambridge Cottage. This building was formerly the private residence of His Royal Highness, the late Duke of Cambridge, and was after his death graciously made over to Kew by the Crown, and opened to the public in 1910. Three of our Museum Buildings, as I have mentioned, are none too well suited for their purpose, since they were not built for the display of museum specimens, still, they serve their function very fairly well. No. I. Museum was enlarged in the year 1881, and both it and No. II., which is the least suitable for a museum, are now inconveniently crowded. It is to be hoped that before long a further enlargement of No. I. Museum may be sanctioned on such a scale that not only the crowded out products derived from the Dicotyledonous plants can be included, but also the Monocotyledon exhibits now displayed in No. II. Museum. If this should ever be sanctioned, then the whole range of vegetable products, exclusive of the timbers of the world, could be studied under one roof, in proper systematic sequence. What, it may be asked, is the purpose of these collections, and in what way are they connected with the work of Kew ? Their chief object is to show the practical applications of botanical science, and to enable students and those engaged in commercial pursuits both at home and from overseas, to appreciate the general relations of the vegetable world to man, and in This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th , 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 93 particular to exhibit the vast resources of the Empire. We learn from them the sources of the innumerable products furnished by plants for our use and con- venience, whether as articles of food, of construction and application in the arts, of medicine or curiosity. They also show us the points where we need further informa- tion, more especially as to the origin of many valuable timbers, fibres and drugs. In short, not only do these collections tell us how much we have already dis- covered, but also how little we still know of the extent to which herbs, shrubs and trees contribute to our necessities, comforts and our numberless requirements. Closely associated with the Museums, as it is also with the garden proper and the work of the Herbarium, the Jodrell Laboratory must now be mentioned. Here, thanks to the munificence of Mr. T. J. Phillips Jodrell, who built and equipped the Laboratory at his own expense in 1876, we have a department where wTork can be undertaken to determine the structure, functions and properties of obscure vegetable products, and it is seldom that it is not possible by means of careful research, to solve the problems which are constantly being presented to us by our correspondents both at home and abroad. Without the wealth of material in the Museums and the Herbarium for comparison and examination, the many valuable results which have been achieved in this laboratory would not have been possible. The Laboratory is also fitted for physio- logical and mycological investigations, and some famous researches by distinguished botanists have been carried out within its walls. Research students are welcomed here, and are able to study, as nowhere else, the problems presented by the vegeta- tion of the globe illustrated, as it is, by the collections of living and preserved plants in the Royal Botanic Gardens. The North Gallery, built and presented by Miss Marianne North, in 1885, is also an appanage of the Museums, and, as is well- known, in this remarkable botanical picture gallery plants from all over the world may be seen painted in oils by her master hand. The pictures are renowned for their botanical accuracy as well as for their artistic skill, and these qualities render them of infinite value in a scientific establishment like Kew where an attempt is made to grow, portray, preserve and study as fully as possible the wonders of the vegetable kingdon. A smaller collection of pictures by Miss M. H. Mason, of South African plants, in Museum No. IV., may also be referred to here, since they enable us to appreciate very clearly the special characteristics of the vegetation of South Africa. This brings me to the fourth depart- ment, the Herbarium. The present Her- barium collections, as I have stated, owe their origin to Sir William Hooker, since those earlier and famous collections made by Sir Joseph Banks and the Kew Collectors, are now at South Kensington. When Sir William came to Kew, he brought with him his own large collection of dried plants, and in 1854 this was greatly augmented by the collections of the dis- tinguished botanist, Mr. George Bentham, who presented his fine private Herbarium and Library to the Nation. This nucleus has been continually added to by official contributions, by exchanges and by the judicious expenditure of our small annual parliamentary grant voted for the purpose, so that now the Kew Herbarium contains between three and four million specimens. In the Herbarium, which is the largest and most completely organised in the world, in addition to the collection of dried speci- mens, we possess a magnificent collection of coloured botanical drawings of plants, so that not only can a large number of the plants of the globe be studied in the living condition, and as pressed specimens, but they can be examined as delineated by botanical artists, both as they have flowered at home, and also in many cases (Miss North's pictures) as they grow and flower in their native countries. Such botanical studies are of very great assistance to the work performed at Kew in connection with the Floras of the different parts of the world. The work carried out in the Herbarium is one of the most important of the functions of Kew. What exactly that work is may be gathered from a perusal of the pages of the Kew Bulletin for the year 1905, compiled by Sir William Thiselton- Dyer. In addition to the attempt that is being made to complete a botanical survey of the Empire, detailed researches are being undertaken in connection with the floras of the world, and particular attention is always being paid to the determination of plants which may prove to be of economic This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 94 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28tli, 1923. importance, whether as food or for use in the arts, and which might be introduced with advantage to one or other of our over- seas possessions. Unless a plant, which may possess definite economic possibilities, has been identified botanically, it is quite useless to attempt its introduction to cultivation without incurring the grave risk of bringing in a worthless plant. The more we get to know about plants, and the more we discover how considerable a range of variation they exhibit, both as regards form and in their constitution, the more we understand the importance of arriving at an exact determination of the particular species or of some special varietal form which it may be desirable to introduce in order that it may be a commercial success. Had it been appreciated earlier that species show fundamental physiological varia- tions, which are often only rendered apparent by experiment in the laboratory, as well as the more easily discernible morphological variations, much labour and money might have been saved. I may instance two examples which affect the British Empire, with both of which Kew has been intimately concerned. In the one case, that of Camphor, the pro- duct derived from Cinnamomum Camphora , Nees, native of Formosa and Japan, Kew must plead ignorance. In the other, that of Para Rubber Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg. the blame must be attached to the rubber growers. They failed to appreciate the fact that science could help them in selecting the best trees to cultivate in their plantations and thought that from the seeds of any tree of Hevea brasiliensis they would obtain the plants they required. Scientific research, however, has shown that the percentage of latex yielded by individual trees varies very greatly in amount, for while some trees yield only 2% of latex, others yield as much as 40%. Had the warning note which was sounded by Kew and by others been regarded, which was, that seed from untested trees should not be sown pro- miscuously, rubber plantations to-day might have been furnished with a larger proportion of the best latex -yielding trees than is now the case. With regard to Camphor, it is only recently that it has become known in the West that there are two varietal forms of the Camphor tree, both so alike in their external botanical characters that they can hardly be separated. One of these yields the valuable solid camphor on distillation, the other camphor oil, a product of little commercial use. Since Camphor can be cultivated in several British Colonies, seed was obtained through Kew for growing in Mauritius, the West Indies and other Colonies. Unhappily, however, the seed which was procured emanated from the oil- producing trees, which were well-known to the senders, so that, except in a few isolated cases, there are scarcely any true Camphor trees in the British Colonies. Problems of this nature abound in the realms of economic botany, as for instance, the exact determination of the best type of Willow for making cricket bats which was worked out at Kew, or in the domain of textiles such as the finding of the best strains of Cotton, New Zealand flax, Sisal or other fibre plants, which from time to time are temptingly brought to the notice of the prospective investor. Several forms are known, both of Agave and Ananas, as members of this society are well aware, which are of little value for fibre production, and such are clearly recog- nisable by their botanical characters. It is in questions such as these that a botanical institution like Kew, with all its resources, can afford so much assistance to industry if only those concerned in commerce will seek our aid. The principal work of the Kew Her- barium, however, is, as I have said, the systematic investigation and description of the floras of the world, and in particular, those of the British Empire. Owing to our close connection with India and the Colonies, vast collections of plants have poured in from every quarter, and it is the work of the Herbarium staň to name, preserve and arrange them so that they may be available for reference and study. It is a matter of regret and a serious handicap to the full measure of our use- fulness, that, despite additions to our staff, the influx of new material has ever been greater than could be absorbed, even with the most unremitting energy. Both the Home and Colonial Govern- ments and the Government of India have been generous in affording financial assist- ance to enable us to tell them of the wealth and potentialities of their floras. But you will, I feel sure, agree that far more help is required if Kew is to maintain its proud position as the premier botanical This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 96 establishment of the world, when I tell you that in our stores we still have accumulations of preserved material, largely from the Empire, amounting to some 200,000 speci- mens. This position, which it must be our earnest endavour to uphold, when British interests are so immense both in the domains of pure and applied botany, can perhaps best be maintained by the generosity of private benefactors, and should there by any happy chance be such an one among my audience, I can assure him that assistance of this nature would benefit humanity at large to no small degree. I may mention here that the great American Institution, the New York Botanical Garden at Bronx Park, has received very large sums in the way of private benefactions, the number and magnitude of which fill me with envy. Science never likes to beg, but should there be anyone anxious to help forward a great task, I would commend to their notice the work which, thanks to the generosity of Charles Darwin, has been undertaken at Kew. I allude to the Index Kewenaie , that great register of all the species of plants, giving their habitats and references to the place and date of publication, of which five supplements have now been published in addition to the four original volumes produced at Darwin's expense. I may mention here that we estimate that the Vlth quinquennial supple- ment of the Index will contain some 35,000 entries of new species, while in the Vth supplement, published in 1921, 37,000 new names were registered. These figures, to- gether with those I have given of the number of our herbarium specimens, will perhaps indicate something of the magni- tude of the work that is being undertaken in the Herbarium, and in particular of the heavy tax on our resources that the prepara- tion of the Index entails ; a work that is indispensable to botanists and horticulturists throughout the world. I must not omit to mention, however, that Kew does receive some valuable help from the Bentham Trustees, who administer the legacy of that illustrious botanist, Mr. George Bentham, who left a sum of money for the purchase of books and specimens for Kew. What, however, has been achieved at the Herbarium in addition to the labours I have already sketched ? I can best answer by pointing to the .long rows of the Colonial and Indian floras, and such ancillary works as " The Dictionary of Economic Products of India," and " The Useful Plants of Nigeria," all of which have been prepared at Kew. The proposal that a series of Colonial floras should be compiled at Kew was made by Sir William Hooker as long ago as 1863, and it is of interest to compare his proposals which were made public in the Annals of Botany for 1902 (p. lxxxiii) with the results that have so far been accom- plished.* ♦" The Life of Sir William Jackson Hooker," by Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, in the Annals of Botany, Vol. XVI., N1. LXIV., Dec., 1902, which gives a vivid account of Sir William Hooker's work at Kew._ See also Kew Bulletin , 1905, p. 20. Colonial and Indian Floras. Sir W. Hookers proposals. Volumes. 1. Australian Colonies including Tasmania. 8- Flora Australiensis. 7. 2. South African Colonies. Ю. Flora Capensis. 3. British North America, Pacific to Atlantic 2- (Not prepared). 4 West Indian Colonies. 2. Flora of the British West Indian Islands. 1. (A new work is now needed.) 5. New Zealand. I- Handbook of the New Zealand Flora. 1 6 Ceylon y 3- Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon. 5 and 1 Ceylon y quarto volume of plates. 7 Hongkong Flora Hongkongensis. 1. в' Mauritius and the Seychelles. 1. Йога of Mauritius and the Sey- 1. chelles. (A new work is now needed.) 9 British Guiana, 2. (Not yet commenced). 10. Honduras. 1- (Not y»t commenced). 11 West African Colonies. 2. Flora of I ropical .Africa. 2. 12 British India. This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 96 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923. In addition to these the following Floras have already appeared, or are in course of preparation, and have been prepared wholly or mainly at Kew : - 1. Materials for the Flora of the Malay Peninsula. 6 volumes. 2. Flora of the Malay Peninsula. 5 volumes, (in preparation, 2 vols, issued) 3. Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain. (1 volume to complete) о volumes. 4. Flora of the Presidency of Madras. 5 parts (under continuation). 5. Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. 2 volumes. 6. Index Florae Sinensis. 'Л volumes. 7. The Commercial Products of India. 1 volume. 8. The Useful Plants of Nigeria. 4 parts. 9. The Flora of West Africa (in preparation). 10. Floras of Bermuda, St. Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha were published in the Scientific results of the Challenger Expedition. 11 Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (Moloney) 1 volume. A proposal to prepare a Flora of Trinidad has been under consideration for some time, but it has not yet been found possible to undertake this very desirable piece of work. In place of Sir William Hooker's proposed " Flora of the West African Colonies," " The Flora of Tropical Africa " has resulted, and is now nearly complete, comprising eleven volumes. So greatly has our know- ledge extended, of the flora of our West African Colonies, that it has been found necessary to ask the Governments of our four West African Colonies, The Gambia, Sierra Leone, The Gold Coast and Nigeria, to subsidise the preparation of a " Flora of West Africa." This proposal, I am happy to say, has received the approval of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and of the Colonial Governments, and work was commenced in September last on this new undertaking. When this new compact Flora is published, it will, I believe, be possible, not only for the botanist but for all in- terested in the vegetation and vast botanical resources of West Africa, to determine the plants they meet with, and learn something of their economic possibilities. The floras of Trinidad, and the splendid vegetation of British Guiana and British Honduras, and, strange as it may seem, the flora of Canada, still await attention ; and, as might be expected, the earlier volumes of the Flora Capensis published between 1859 and 1865, require to be almost entirely re -written, so greatly has our knowledge grown of the vegetation of South Africa in recent years. Similar remarks apply to the Floras of Mauritius and of the West Indies. Thus, though much has been accomp- lished, even more remains to be done, and, as in every other branch of science, it is not possible to foresee any termination to our activities, but rather each accession of new knowledge opens up long vistas and enlarged spheres of useful and necessary work. Not only do we deal in the Herbarium with the flowering plants and ferns, but with the mosses, lichens, seaweeds and fungi of the world as well, and such matters as the serious Panama disease of bananas, the coffee leaf disease ( Hemileia ), which devastated the flourishing coffee plantations in Ceylon, and other noxious or less harmful plant diseases from time to time demand investigation on the part of our scientific assistants. Every post brings some enquiry of interest, and frequently one which neces- sitates careful and laborious research, or, on the other hand, it may open out some possibility of utilising a new economic product for the benefit of one of our distant Colonies. • We are prepared to report upon and obtain advice with regard to new vegetable industries, though it may relate to so small a matter as the supply of West African palm kernels for carving into coat buttons, or as to the value of a pithy stem as a material for a razor strop, on which - before the days of safety razors, I need hardly say- Kew reported to a West Indian Government, or even, quite recently, as to the botanical identity of the wood of a walking stick, about which its owner, as we discovered later, had made a bet ! I must, however, return to the garden side of Kew in order to illustrate more fully our close connection with the Colonies and India. It was through Kew, as I think it is now well-known, that the Para rubber industry of the East was founded, and that the cultivation of Cinchona in India, Ceylon and Jamaica came about. This latter enterprise had been urged by Sir Joseph Banks more than half a century before. These two remarkable introductions of South American economic plants were made This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th. 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 97 possible through the assistance given by Kew to the two enterprises, for the seeds of both plants were despatched to Kew from their native countries (Hevea in 1876, Cinchona in 1861), and the young plants which were raised in our greenhouses were despatched in Wardian cases to the East, where they now flourish. In the one case, the successful achievement has brought very large financial returns, and in the other, the possibility of sound health in the tropics to a vast number of people. I might give an account of many other projects that Kew has undertaken did time permit, such as the introduction of the very useful Teff grass from Abyssinia to South Africa ; the annual sending of Mahogany seeds from the West Indies to India, and the building up there of Mahogany forests ; the advice and help which Kew has afforded to the experiment in aff ores tat - ing the barren tree-less Falkland Islands, and the sending of seeds and cases of useful plants to the Islands of Ascension and St. Helena with the result that Ascension is now furnished with useful thickets of trees. Kew has also rendered assistance which has been of value in setting up the lucrative Onion - growing enterprise in Antigua, and in connection with the making of paper from the " Ginger Lily," Hedychium coronarium . Then, again, reference must be made to the sending of Cacao plants to the Gold Coast since the success of the Cocoa plantations there is largely due to the assistance and advice afforded by the Royal Botanic Gardens. Interesting stories about many other economic plants, valuable for their fibre, for paper making, spices or drugs, or for their food value, with which Kew has been intimately concerned, could also be related. I must, however, pass on to the consideration of a further sphere of usefulness to which we attach great importance, and which has been attended with far-reaching results ; that is, the work of completing the botanical and horticultural training of the young men who come to Kew for a period of two or three years as Student Gardeners. In this respect Kew may be regarded as a University of Horticulture, and perhaps more particularly of Tropical Horticulture, since so many of her sons go out to every part of the Empire to carry on the science and practice of Horticulture in the Botanic Gardens and Agricultural Stations in the Tropics. That this should be the case is only natural since in no other Institution in this country can so much be learned about the vegetation of the Tropics, and the proper method of cultivation of tropical economic and other plants. Men trained in botany and agriculture in our Universities are no doubt well equipped in the scientific principles underlying their subject, buiv they are perforce sadly handicapped, owing to their lack of practical knowledge of the plants which they will meet with in our Colonies in connection with their work. With the growing and legitimate demand for men who have passed through a Uni- versity on the part of the Colonial Govern- ments, the men trained at Kew are often placed in a difficult and unfavourable position, but I venture to say that the best of our students will be found, in the long run, with their practical knowledge added to the theoretical instruction provided for them at Kew, to be able to hold their own in comparison with the men who have had better opportünities in the way of a course at a University or at an Agricultural Collego Neither class of men, I would submit, are entirely satisfactory for sending out straight from home to some distant Colony where they will be confronted with problems with which they are, to a great extent, unfamiliar, but now that the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture has been so successfully established in Trinidad, I am convinced that at last we have the opportunity of completing the education necessary both for the University candidate and for the man trained at Kew, so that they may become efficient scientific officers qualified to serve in whichever of our Tropical Colonies or Dominions their services may be required. I have recently had occasion to bring this aspect of the training of scientific officers for colonial posts to the notice of the Secre- tary of State for the Colonies, and I hope that my proposals may meet with His Grace's approval, and that they may also be favourably considered by the Governors and Directors of Agriculture of our Colonies. The important part that Kew has played in the past, and I am glad to say is still maintaining, in sending out her sons to distant lands in Government service, is, as I have indicated earlier, in direct con- tinuity with the policy initiated by Sir Joseph Banks over a century ago, when Kew men were sent to take charge öf the Botanic Gardens in Ceylon, St. Vincent and Trinidad. This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 98 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923. The connection between the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the many daughter Botanic Gardens and Stations overseas - which have now very generally become the centres of flourishing Agricultural Depart- ments - has been of inestimable benefit both to the Home and to the Colonial In- stitutions, and has served to weld that link of union and mutual help and sympathy which it is so essential to preserve. Before leaving this portion of my subject, I may perhaps be allowed to mention that at the present time among the higher posts held by Kew men in the Colonies, one of our former student gardeners is Director of Agriculture in the Gambia and another is Commissioner of Lands and Forests, Sierra Leone. Another is Super- intendent of the Botanic and Forestry Department, Hongkong, and the Economic Botanist, Trinidad, also received his early training at Kew, while the Superintendents and Curators of almost every one of our Tropical Agricultural Stations and Botanic Gardens have passed through Kew. In the United States of America it is of interest to note that Kew -trained men are held in high esteem. One is now Assistant Director of the famous Arnold Arboretum, and several others hold important horticultural appoint- ments in that country. The value of the Kew training is further emphasised by the fact that several of our Scientific Assistants received their early training in the Gardens, including the present Assistant Director, who, before returning to Kew last year, held important posts in the Gold Coast as Assistant and Deputy Conservator of Forests and in Singapore as Assistant Director of the Botanic Gardens. I cannot close this account of the work of the Royal Botanic Gardens without a brief reference to the building where all the various activities are centred, namely, the Director's Office ; a small and un- pretentious building of great interest from its historical associations. I believe the Director of Kew has been compared to a spider at the centre of his web, and the comparison is not altogether inept, since he has to keep in intimate touch with all the threads of the work in progress in each of the separate departments, and with all the important matters raised by corres- pondents at home and abroad. It is also his duty, and it is a very pleasant and interesting side of the Kew work, to keep himself informed as to the progress of botanical and agricultural affairs in India, the Dominions and the Colonies, and to do whatever may lie in his power to help forward their various enterprises. The crowded shelves on the walls of the Director's room afford some evidence of the nature of the work, as any visitor to his office can see, for every folio bears in large letters on its back the name of some dependency of the Crown or of a subdivision of India, or of a Dominion. In fact, a stranger might well think that he had inadvertently entered the office of the President of the Royal Geographical Society or the room of the Secretary of State for the Colonies in mistake for the Director's Office at Kew. The average daily post bag also reflects very clearly the Imperial nature of the work of Kew. Letters and parcels come from every part of the world, and may relate to such varied subjects as the possibility of introducing the mulberry tree to British Honduras ; the Panama disease of bananas ; the suitability of Newfoundland lichens for reindeer food ; the precautions that should be taken to prevent undue destruction of the oil palm in West Africa ; the identity of the seeds in a mixture of chicken food, a query possibly involving some legal action ; or as to the botanical identity of a tropical plant about which all information is withheld by the senders, who we subsequently find are interested in the promotion of a company for its exploitation. In the latter case, I think the enquirers would be a little disturbed did they know how much we had been able to discover about their plant, bearing some camouflaged name, both as to its country of origin, chances of success under cultivation and so on. There is also the extensive and more purely scientific correspondence to be attended to with botanical establishments on the Con- tinent and in America, Java and the East as well as with our colleagues in our home universities and colleges. Visitors, too, are sometimes almost as numerous and varied as the letters, for like them they come from every part of the world, and serve as a pleasant reminder that the work of Kew is appreciated throughout the Empire, and their visits to Kew help to strengthen that tie of mutual sympathy and intercourse the value of which we fully realise. That several members of the staff have personal acquaintance with most parts of the world enables Kew to give more useful This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 2 sth , 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 99 advice and criticism than might otherwise be possible. I hope I may have been able to give you some small idea of what the work of Kew really is, and that though this work is pre-eminently scientific, KewT is, nevertheless, keenly alive to the interests that make countries prosperous and wealthy. In the words of Sir William Thiselton-Dyer - which are, I believe, as true now as when they were written over forty years ago - Kew " has itself grown and flourished under its past and present Chiefs . . . not so much from its dependence upon their merits, but rather because the principles of its administration have been essentially British and practical. " It has steadily set itself to do every kind of public work which is connected with botanical science. 44 It was never launched with a theoretically complete equipment and constitution, but it has slowly earned every advantage that has been conceded to it, and, as its labours have been enlarged, so its capacity for their performance has been increased." The following testimony, extracted from a speech by Mr. Joseph Chamberlain in the House of Commons on August 2nd, 1898, will show how much, in the opinion of the most famous of Colonial Secretaries, the Colonies owe to Kew : " I do not think it is too much to say that at the present time there are several of our important Colonies which owe whatever prosperity they possess to the knowledge and experience of, and the assistance given by, the authorities at KewT Gardens. Thousands of letters pass every year between the authorities at Kew and the Colonies, and they are able to place at the services of those Colonies not only the best advice and experience, but seeds and samples of economic plants capable of cultivation in the Colonies." I have attempted to show how much of what Kew has become is due to the initiative and foresight of Sir Joseph Banks and Sir William Hooker, and I think if it were desired to place an inscription beneath a monument to either of these great men, relating to their work at Kew, the following verses from the Book of Ecclesiasticus, which refer to "Wisdom," might very fittingly be selected : - 4 4 1 came out as a brook from a river, and as a conduit into a garden. " I said, I will water my best garden and will water abundantly my garden bed ; and lo, my brook became a river, and my river became a sea." DISCUSSION. The Chairman said that they had listened to an exceedingly interesting and very complete account of a famous Institution. He supposed that Kew and perhaps the waxworks in Marylebone Road were the two best-known places in London, not only to the provincial, but to the foreigner. He had often been surprised, while talking to foreigners in different places, by tlieir knowledge of Kew, which was the one place that they wanted to come to England to see. It was no little privilege to be associated with a Garden such as Kew, and he entertained a certain envy of the lecturer. Dr. Hill had told them something of the history of Kew during the last 150 years. In seeing Kew to-day one wras sometimes apt to forget the wonderful services which had been rendered to the Carden in time past by the pioneers, especially the two Hookers, father and son ; and there were many other botanists that one might mention whose names came to mind. He remembered Sir Joseph Hooker in one or several of his letters complaining that the young botanists of his day did not know their plants, and the speaker was afraid that this was still true of some of the older botanists. Many botanical students, while having an intimate acquaintance with the insides of plants, had only the slenderest knowledge of their outsides. He himself had been more or less brought up in that sort of school. He was not going to complain of his teachers, because he felt nothing but gratitude towards most of them ; but it was the fact that at that time - and he was afraid that the schools were yet not quite free from the reproach - one learned a good deal of the microscopic characters of plants without knowing what the plants themselves looked like. Students could improve their education at Kew in that respect. One thing that always struck him about Kew was that it appealed to every sort of person, not only botanists, but all men who had any aesthetic sense (and most people had some). The botanist himself approached Kew with a sense of awe, while the ordinary non-botanical person who went there, probably walked about as if the place belonged to him. He himself remembered going to the Director's office - long before the time of the present Director - in fear and trembling, though he found when he got into his presence that the Director was a human being, and indeed his experience had always been that the Directors of Kew were essentially human. So long as that state of affairs continued, the fortunes of Kew might safely be left in their hands. A great deal had been heard that evening about the work which Kew had done and was doing - its variety and utility. But he thought that Kew might even do a little more than it was doing, and he hoped that in future it would develop along new lines of activity. There was still room for expansion at Kew on the experimental side, and the best wish one could express for its future was that it might go on developing in the This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 100 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923. future with the same rapidity as in the past. They had been told that evening that science never liked to beg. As a matter of fact, he thought that the lecturer had begged very nicely, and he would be very glad - he did not wish to appear as a rival beggar - if an additional endowment could be obtained for that wonderful book, the Index Kewevsis. That was a work to which every botanist owed a great deal, and to which he turned very frequently for information, and he would like to support the appeal which had been so delicately made that evening by the Director of Kew. Professor F. W. Oliver, F.R.S., said that the Chairman had called upon him to speak probably because he knew that the first half of his life was spent in the Gardens as the son of an official, and that he could speak quite freely. He had always been an admirer of Kew, as well as its critic. His criticisms, however, he reserved for private consumption. Nor was he going to indulge in reminiscences of those early days when he lived in the Gardens, except to say that his recollections of fifty years ago were extraordinarily vivid because Kew to him then was naturally the centre of his world, as well as the centre of the botanical world. In the sixties and seventies of the last century the dominant element in botany was the systematists. They occupied all the principal positions in the botanical world, and with them resided the power of conferring appointments upon others. If at that time a botanical post was desired one naturally made friends with the Hookers or their successors. That state of affairs had gone and could never return on account of the enormous subdivision and development of the branches of botanical science. But in those days the whole botanical world used to come to Kew and reside for a week or a month or more on Kew Green, especially in the Long Vacation. Dozens of the most eminent botanists, British and foreign, were to be seen there. All this left an indelible impression on his mind, the more so because they used to talk quite freely to him, and say what they thought of Kew. They agreed that it was a most wonderful place, and then they held up their hands and said, " But, you know, the whole thing is simply wasted. Not more than one per cent, of the resources and material at Kew is utilised in any way whatever in the advancement of knowledge." What they meant was that all the plants that could be grown in the world were being grown at Kew, but that was all ; the harvest was rich, but the reapers were few. The other point he remembered was this, that he and others would utilise Kew in an illegitimate way - bird-nesting, for example. Kew had an extraordinary range of birds and bird-nests, and he learned most of his ornithology in Kew Gardens. Occasionally he would use a gun for shooting game birds, sometimes even out of season ! But one felt that Kew at that time sadly lacked the element of youth. This systematic aspect of botany got a little bit upon one's nerves. One of the most happy episodes in the development of Kew was the foundation of the Jodrell Laboratory, to which Dr. Hill alluded, and particularly the association with it of Dr. Scott. When the history of botany at the end of last century and the beginning of the present century came to be written the work done in the Jodrell Laboratory connected with Dr. Scott would receive full justice. His was a most extraordinary output from one man, and the number of young people he interested in the subject of botany as a whole was quite remarkable. Almost every botanist for the last forty years had passed under the influence of Dr. Scott, and lasting and extra- ordinary benefits had resulted to all of them. The speaker's last point was to suggest that some- thing in the nature of an entente might come about- bet ween Kew Gardens and, if not a university, a sort of department of botany or botanical institute, which would have the privilege of using Kew and advancing the knowledge of the subject. He was not implying any blame to anybody, but it was perfectly impossible for the officials of a Garden to succeed in the double duty of administra- tion and of advancing to the full the knowledge of the subject. At one time he was almost thinking of getting up a syndicate to carry out this idea - in other words, to acquire Gloucester House close by and convert it under a syndicate into a botanical institute ; but that never came to anything, and the building was taken over as a college for the training of miners and other working-men who became leaders of labour. Any such development might not come within the next twenty or thirty years, but he felt sure that at some time or other an educational side would develop in connection with Kew, in the most friendly relations with the Gardens, and yet not under their authority. Kew was a Government institution, and it was out of the question to have an educational body under the orders of a Government office, although too often one found that such was the relationship. The name of Sir Joseph Banks had been mentioned that evening. Banks was not merely a botanist, he moved in the great world and knew everybody. Those who had read the Faringtbn Diaries, lately published in the Morning Poet , would have noted with pleasure the frequent appearance of Sir Joseph Banks, not only in social engagements, but on his travels, in his illnesses, and at his eatings and wine- drinkings. The Diaries showed that Banks was very human, in which respect he resembled the Directors of later times. Those must have been great days,' when men were still in touch with the tradition of Linnaeus, who made the subject of botany more popular, he supposed, than it had ever been before, and certainly than it had ever been since. Linnaeus made certain aspects of botany at once accessible to common men. There was no more fashionable pursuit 160 years ago than the study of botany. Whether those days would ever come back again or not it was impossible to say ; probably they would not. Dr. J. A. Voelcker said that he could not claim, like the last speaker, to have spent his early days This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 101 at Kew. He had to speak rather from the point of view of the ordinary visitor, and as such he would like to be the medium of expressing the great indebtedness of the public to those who directed such a place as Kew. He did not know what others thought, but he had often remarked, on his periodical visits, that he always came away feeling that he had got something for the payment of his imperial taxes ! Whether people simply walked round and enjoyed the sight of the plants and the museums and ended up with tea at the Pagoda, or whether they went with more serious intentions, they must always feel, he thought, that they had got something for being citizens of the Empire. But for those who knew the subject more closely there was a much wider sphere of interest at Kew, and it was very instructive to have heard from the Director himself an account of the history and of the present activities embraced under the name of Kew. If he might be allowed as a layman to speak from his own experience, he would like to acknowledge the courtesy and the readiness to help which resulted from addressing inquiries to Kew. In his owTi agricultural work he had had from time to time to refer questions to Kew, and it was almost unnecessary for. him to say that the officials there were willing to go to endless trouble in satisfying the requests of those who applied to them. The British public did not fully know of this ; they did not realise that institutions such as Kew were there for the purpose of affording information to inquirers, and the number of questions which the obliging officials there were able to answer was remarkable. We needed to be reminded that Kew was a national possession. It was one of the places to which we had a right to go, and if the public did not use the stores of information available, the fault was that of the public and not of Kew. At all events, he could say for the Directors of Kew Gardens, and now for the present Director, that they were always willing and ready to afford information to those who inquired. He could bear out from his own experience what Dr. Hill had said with regard to the influence of Kew in other parts of the Empire. It had been his lot to travel about in India, and wherever he went he found a number of people in constant touch with Kew. The Gardens at Calcutta, Saharanpur, and elsewhere were in regular correspondence with Kew. The same thing obtained in the West Indies and elsewhere. All this formed part of a vast system for the gathering together of information which was for the benefit of science, and which also served commercial interests. There were a large number of cases in which the accumulated knowledge of Kew, from purely scientific sources, had been devoted to the expansion of commercial interests. Science was not valued purely for its own sake, but for the extent also to which it could be used in the general service. He had been interested to hear of the different changes that Kew had gone through in its time, how the original plan was conceived and carried out, and how it then underwent a period of decadence, when another institution, the British Museum, came up and secured the early records of Kew. He did not know that that was altogether a bad move ; it was not always a mistake to have two institutions, one keeping the other up to the mark. At all events, the old plan had been reverted to, and the system of having collectors and correspondents all over the world had been retained, and all who had listened to the lecture that evening would wish good success to that work. Mr. E. Shine said that in the Ministry of Agriculture he had the pleasure of working with the Director of Kew. The Director had rather slurred over, in his paper, the connection with the Ministry of Agriculture, and he for his part only wished that the Ministry of Agriculture had the same interesting dealings with Kew that, he understood, the Foreign Office, the Colonial Office, and other departments of Government had. The Ministry of Agriculture's concern at Kew often related to such dull questions as to whether perambulators should be permitted to go into the Gardens, and whether the entrance fee should be a penny, twopence, or nothing at all. The Ministry of Agriculture was very glad to be connected with a department like Kew Gardens, which, he thought, was always in favour with the general public. At the Ministry they were so accustomed to people finding fault with them on such questions as rabies, foot and mouth disease, and so on, that it was quite pleasant to hear everybody exclaim that everything in the garden was lovely ! So far as the officials at the Ministry were concerned, their relations with the Director and officials were always most harmonious, and they welcomed at the Ministry the privilege of being associated with them. The Secretary said that there was one small point to which he would like to draw attention. The Director of Kew had referred at the beginning of his paper to the introduction of the bread-fruit tree to the West Indies. The speaker merely wished to point out, as a sort of foot-note to the paper, that the whole question of the conveyance of that bread-fruit tree to the West Indies was due to the work of the Society. Sir Henry Trueman Wood, in his History of the Society, related how Sir Joseph Banks, who was a member, took a great interest in this question, and it was on his suggestion that a prize was offered with this particular object. As a result of that prize, Captain Bligh undertook his expedition on the " Bounty." He failed the first time, but on his second expedition, in 1793, he succeeded. On his return he sent in a full report of the whole affair to the Society, and as a result of that he was awarded the Gold Medal. The Chairman felt sure that the andience would wish to express its hearty thanks to the Director of Kew. He could only say for himself that although he had been more or less familiar with Kew for some time, he had been somewhat ignorant of its past history, and had not realised the full extent of its activities until that evening. It would be This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 102 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December mh, 1923. a great advantage to many to have this paper in a form in which it could be readily referred to, and he was very glad that it was going to be printed in the Journal. It would be a most valuable paper for reference. A vote of thanks was passed unanimously. Dr. Hill briefly acknowledged the compliment, and the meeting terminated. NOTES ON BOOKS. Life of Sir William White, K.C.B., F.R.S., LLD., D.Sc. By Frederick Manning, with an introduction by The Rt. Hon. Lord George Hamilton, G.C.S.I., LL.D., D.C.L. London : John Murray. 1923. Sir William White died in 1913 at the age of 68, so that it is time for his life to be written, if it is to be read by any of his contemporaries. Not very many of them can still survive, and the list is rapidly diminishing. One of them, Lord George Hamilton, fortunately is still alive and contributes, as an introduction to this volume, a warm and generous appreciation of Sir William's character and public service. Lord George and Sir William White were born in the same year. One was First Lord of the Admiralty when the other was appointed Director of Naval construction, and the mutual liking and admiration conceived by each for the other continued till Sir William's death. Sir William White's life just synchronised with the era of change brought about by the introduction of steam as a motive power, and the substitution of iron for wood in the construction of war-ships. The first work on which he was employed as a dockyard apprentice was the conversion of a sailing ship into a screw- propelled steamer. When he resigned his post at the Admiralty, British war-ships had become the huge swift engines of destruction which saved the country from invasion in the great war which began a year after his death. From the time of Elizabeth till the day of Trafalgar, there had been no great change in our ships, and in the half-century which followed Trafalgar the improvement had been but small. Now, a single modern line-of-battleship (given, of course, a sufficient supply of ammunition) could send to the bottom, herself uninjured, the great Armada and the English ships which drove it to destruction, or the combined fleets which fought at Trafalgar. It is not, of course, suggested that these great changes were in any sense due to Sir William White. Things would have taken the same course had he never lived, and even when they were modified by individual direction, he was only one of many whose influence affected the direction of change and its character ; but he took his full share of the work. To call him " the greatest naval architect this world has ever seen," is to make rather a strong statement, but certainly among his contemporaries he had few, if any, equals, and certainly no superior. He started in life as a dockyard apprentice, after a discussion, it would appear, between some of his friends as to whether he should not be trained for the Baptist Ministry. Fortunately, alike for the boy and for the public service, the wiser counsel prevailed and he entered the Royal dockyard at Devonport in 1859. Not very long after his apprenticeship (in 1869), the School of Naval Architecture was founded at South Kensington and White was one of the candidates selected from the various dockyards. He passed at the head of the list in the competitive examination and remained at the school till he entered the construction department of the Admiralty in 1870. In the same year the School was merged in the Royal Naval College at Greenwich, and White, who had become Instructor of Naval Architecture at the school, became one of the Lecturers at the College. At the Admiralty he remained till 1883 holding various appointments, the highest being that of Chief Constructor. In that year he received an offer from Sir William Armstrong which led to his employment by the great Elswick firm. With them he remained till 1885, when, on the resignation of Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, he was recalled to the Admiralty as Director of Naval Construction. White's acceptance of this post was a distinctly patriotic act, for in spite of its high distinction, its emoluments were less than he was receiving, and would have received at Elswick. If he had remained at Armstrongs he would certainly have died a much richer, and probably a happier man. The service of a great commercial firm is free from many of the drawbacks of service under superiors whose actions and decisions must of necessity be influenced very largely by political considerations ; and besides discharging the duties of a difficult post, he had to meet the parliamentary criticism of a former holder of the same office, neither an easy nor an agreeable task. The policy of the Admiralty, and the work of its construction department were the subject of vigorous, even violent, controversy, alike Parliamentary and professional. The Director of Naval construction was not only permitted, but expected to take his part in it. This White did with much effect, both at the professional associations, such as the Institutions of Naval Architects and of Civil Engineers, and before more popular audiences in his lectures and addresses at the Society of Arts, and the British Association. He held his office till 1902, when he resigned. His resignation, partly due to failing health, was precipitated by a blunder made in the construction of a Royal Yacht, for which he was nominally though not actually, responsible. The work which he carried out during his 17 years' tenure of office is described in full detail by Mr. Manning, and the record is a long and honourable one. When he left the Admiralty he was disposed to retire entirely from further work, but the advice and solicitations of several warm friends induced him as his health recovered, to resume. He became This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Print Journal Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Work of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Description An account of the resource The history of Kew Gardens and its role in empire. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arthur William Hill (1875-1941) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce in collaboration with JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/41356412 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal article Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available George Bell & Sons Limited Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Friday, December 28, 1923 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource JSTOR Digital Collections Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF scan of paper journal Language A language of the resource English Empire https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/c7fcbd7736b2b13f0b13812b4b1daa6d.jpg a972a15bda113b3c93a317139b1cdf7d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting, , Oil on canvas Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image H 80.9 x W 54 cm Text Any textual data included in the document V. Bell, 1921 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Red-Hot Pokers Description An account of the resource Still life of a vase of flowers, including red-hot pokers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vanessa Bell (1879–1961) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Manchester Art Gallery, https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/red-hot-pokers-204438 Type The nature or genre of the resource Painting Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Vanessa Bell Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1921 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix, Aesthetic Appendix Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Copyright held by the estate of Vanessa Bell, all rights reserved. Digitized by the Manchester Art Gallery. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPEG digital photo of painting Vanessa Bell https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/8e7092a51527ded1a52e59843f58c6d9.jpg 6a6d54d4f1b1cf85721494d551e7787c https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/c1d881dc9c1bc5eba09990dc9f15d14d.jpg 78130b54da1606fb8d76a106c9641e2b https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/ca60967422cf0de64dbcc22a27f50617.jpg ef49ebb40288a0758b6a36be95ce469d https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/34c631d769345ea224b229747542a7fe.jpg f10341fccce852a4adafd215435166a3 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/3d8595ad6a4fec8eab1f7cb014ac07d4.jpg 6fddfe00a0e15011271fdd7a1dd80e26 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/a403d44410893b7fe8c6ec0469dd0340.jpg 9de7c687f129320b521a2d30d432d1bb Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 26 CORNWALL dulated through enormous lateral pressure. The granite, the lowest and most ancient formation of all, was itself consolidated under vast pressure from above, and was not in a molten condition when forced to the surface. Had it been so, it would have resolved itself into lava. It was cold when upheaved, tearing apart the superincumbent stratified sedimentary rocks, which disappeared from the summits, and on all sides about these upheavals were twisted, contorted, thrown back, and fissured. Atmospheric effect and natural gravitation is con- stantly carrying the soil from the upper land, from the hills into the bottoms, and consequently it is in the latter that we find the richest land, best calculated to repay the toil of the agriculturist. On the high moors there is little depth of so called “meat earth,” below which is clay and grit, hard and unprofitable, commonly called the “calm ” or the “deads.” But adjoining the granite is the wash from it of its dissolved felspar, the china-clay that furnishes the inhabitants of the St Austell district with a remunerative and ever-growing industry, of which more presently. 7. Natural History, Various facts, which can only shortly be mentioned here, go to show that the British Isles have not existed as such, and separated from the Continent, for any great length of geological time. Around our coasts, for instance, and specially in Cornwall, are in several places remains of forests now sunk beneath the sea, and only to be seen at NATURAL HISTORY 27 extreme low water. Between England and the Continent the sea is very shallow, and St Paul's Cathedral might be placed anywhere in the North Sea without submerging its summit, but a little west of Ireland we soon come to very deep soundings. Great Britain and Ireland were thus once part of the Continent and are examples of what geologists call recent continental islands. But we also have no less certain proof that at some anterior period they were almost entirely submerged. The fauna and fora thus being destroyed, the land would have to be re- stocked with animals and plants from the Continent when union again took place, the influx of course coming from the east and south. As, however, it was not long before separation occurred, not all the continental species could establish themselves. We should thus expect to find that the parts in the neighbourhood of the Continent were richer in species and those furthest off poorer, and this proves to be the case both in plants and animals. While Britain has fewer species than France or Belgium, Ireland has still less than Britain. Small though England may be, she can nevertheless show most striking differences of fauna and fora in different districts. On the moors of the north, for example, the heaths and berries underfoot, and the larger birds of prey and grouse which now and again meet our view offer a marked contrast to—let us say—the furze- clad chalk downs of Sussex, where the wheatear and whinchat and the copper butterflies and “ blues” are familiar objects. These differences depend upon a number of conditions, often mutually interdependent—upon varia- 28 CORNWALL tions of soil, rainfall, temperature, and so forth. Cornwall presents unusual peculiarities in many ways, and we may now consider how far these have affected the creatures and plants within her borders. Firstly, Cornwall is remotely situated—one of the extreme points of Western Europe—and, whether the fact be dependent on food conditions or not, we find that there are several species of bird, common in other parts of England, which do not occur within the county, such as the nightingale, the wood warbler, garden warbler, . redstart, and others. It would almost seem as if some of these species had not found their way thither since the re-peopling of the land by its present fauna, but were in gradual process of doing so, for there is no doubt that many birds rare or unknown in the Duchy half a century ago are now not uncommon, and appear to be steadily moving westward. That the starling is doing so is perhaps not remarkable, for this bird has enormously increased in numbers of late years and has spread every- where, even up into northern Scotland, but it is curious that birds like the stock-dove and all the woodpeckers and other non-gregarious sorts should show this tendency. Next, Cornwall is from its position constantly exposed to high winds, and to heavy gales in winter, combined with an unusually heavy rainfall and an "insular” climate tending to warmth and equableness. These factors, added to the granitic formation of much of its area, have made it a country of bleak moorland varied with thickly-wooded deep valleys—dampness being the leading characteristic of both. With such physical conditions, then, we should NATURAL HISTORY 29 expect to find the Duchy not very varied in its native trees, perhaps, but particularly abundant in ferns, and this is the case, for 39 species are recorded, while lichens are not less rich. It bears in many ways a resemblance to the climate of Portugal, for here the camellia flourishes and displays its beautiful flowers to perfection, and the tea In a Cornish Garden plant does so well that there seems no reason why it should not be grown for profit. It is not a land of warblers, nor can it show the rich and varied wildfowl fauna of the Fenlands, but there is no county in England where, in the marshy glens, woodcocks are more abundant. The moorlands, too, abound in snipe, and at one time blackgame were common, but the larger birds of prey [This page contains an image] 28 CORNWALL tions of soil, rainfall, temperature, and so forth. Cornwall presents unusual peculiarities in many ways, and we may now consider how far these have affected the creatures and plants within her borders. Firstly, Cornwall is remotely situated—one of the extreme points of Western Europe—and, whether the fact be dependent on food conditions or not, we find that there are several species of bird, common in other parts of England, which do not occur within the county, such as the nightingale, the wood warbler, garden warbler, . redstart, and others. It would almost seem as if some of these species had not found their way thither since the re-peopling of the land by its present fauna, but were in gradual process of doing so, for there is no doubt that many birds rare or unknown in the Duchy half a century ago are now not uncommon, and appear to be steadily moving westward. That the starling is doing so is perhaps not remarkable, for this bird has enormously increased in numbers of late years and has spread every- where, even up into northern Scotland, but it is curious that birds like the stock-dove and all the woodpeckers and other non-gregarious sorts should show this tendency. Next, Cornwall is from its position constantly exposed to high winds, and to heavy gales in winter, combined with an unusually heavy rainfall and an "insular” climate tending to warmth and equableness. These factors, added to the granitic formation of much of its area, have made it a country of bleak moorland varied with thickly-wooded deep valleys—dampness being the leading characteristic of both. With such physical conditions, then, we should NATURAL HISTORY 29 expect to find the Duchy not very varied in its native trees, perhaps, but particularly abundant in ferns, and this is the case, for 39 species are recorded, while lichens are not less rich. It bears in many ways a resemblance to the climate of Portugal, for here the camellia flourishes and displays its beautiful flowers to perfection, and the tea In a Cornish Garden plant does so well that there seems no reason why it should not be grown for profit. It is not a land of warblers, nor can it show the rich and varied wildfowl fauna of the Fenlands, but there is no county in England where, in the marshy glens, woodcocks are more abundant. The moorlands, too, abound in snipe, and at one time blackgame were common, but the larger birds of prey [This page contains an image] 30 CORNWALL have for the most part vanished, though an occasional buzzard may be seen and the raven is not yet extinct. Lastly, it is to be noted that Cornwall is the nearest part of England to America. However difficult it may be of explanation, the fact remains that the Duchy is very rich in rare birds; so rich, indeed, that their recorded occurrence cannot by any possibility be merely accidental. Thus, no less than 24 species have occurred in Cornwall which have never been found in Devonshire. But more than this, a very large number of these—18 or more- are purely American species. The question is, whence do they come ? Professor James Clark, who has discussed the point at some length in the Victoria County History, is, apparently, loth to believe that they can come directly across the Atlantic, and it is by many thought that they are driven back by heavy south-westerly weather when dropping down the English Channel, having come by a circuitous route from Northern Europe. But against this is the undeniable fact that it is in the immediate neigh- bourhood of the Land's End that the chief rarities and stragglers are obtained, while many species have been shot in the Scilly Islands which have never been recorded from Cornwall itself. So far as its botany is concerned, Cornwall does not differ very markedly from Devonshire, but it has a large number of rare or peculiar plants. The highlands and north coast are rather poor in species; it is on the banks and estuaries of the streams that the richest flora is seen. A number of foreign plants are found, mostly in the neighbourhood of Falmouth and other ports. The balsam, NATURAL HISTORY Impatiens Roylei, from India, grows extremely abundantly between Liskeard and Looe, and near Tintagel, and a species of May-weed (Matricaria discoidea) has become a troublesome pest near Falmouth. Loe Pool in the Lizard district is noticeable for the number of rare and local plants it possesses. The Scilly Islands own certain plants peculiar to them; thus, Trifolium repens, var. Townsendi, and Ornithopus ebracteatus are said not to be found elsewhere in England, and Carex ligerica only in Norfolk. The chief feature of the mammals of the county is that the grey seal, Halichaerus gryphus, is quite numerous in the Scilly Islands; that the polecat, though nearly extinct, it still found ; and that both badgers and otters are very abundant. It is a curious fact that certain freshwater fish common in other parts of England, such as pike, roach, chub, and bream, are unknown. The bird which bears the distinctive appellation, the Cornish chough it is not confined to the county, but is also found in Wales), is now not nearly as common as formerly, but like the raven it still breeds on some parts of the coast. 8. Around the Coast. From Morwen- stow to Land's End. This noble coast—so terrible to sailors—begins with the fine Henna Cliff at Morwenstow. Morwenstow Church contains an early font and has fine Norman arches. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Original Book 1920 pages. Pages 26-31 included here. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cambridge County Geographies: Cornwall, Chapter 7: Natural History Description An account of the resource Overview of the history of Cornwall. Chapter 7 briefly covers geological, zoological, and botanical history. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource S. Baring-Gould (1834-1924) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived HathiTrust EBook, print book owned by University of Michigan, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015023261194 Type The nature or genre of the resource Resource Book Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1910 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain in the United States, Google digitized. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPEG scans of print book, original ix, 164 p. incl. illus., map, diagrs. 19 cm. Language A language of the resource English Cornwall https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/5ac62d8dfa9cc51b027f22692c13b96f.jpg f75ce8ebb7edb77de25a600edfd520ce https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/3c38d14ce5c000c25e47aeb2b921bc07.jpg b7c9b5b57533f8d81eba0fe12b6816a9 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/9ed2540982980d8190d58f2dd79093a6.jpg 739b6a0074dc7a70fede48a812f9715c https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/f1938f410974a880da12c2779461028e.jpg 5d3170c2d6889ba2b1e846db2f1e6e77 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/0d253d17c5c5509f62da322943365870.jpg 8916e6edc4e419a365e4475813930dda https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/e1827c549e449e069318deb3cb3734b4.jpg 4e6b214ce8ee9d7eca681793e16c48f2 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/2d1b726fb94533398cab9ea6bf40a45b.jpg 73ff77e81e324b31b183c790b1bfbd6a https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/6b9badc0b1b57c8c87d25569f1d2fb26.jpg 2a205345180bc22beca3141331125f76 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/3fbba16a754363ac65739c7d6357eccd.jpg 950bf77040d0c49cf443d05de3fcf754 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/770ec05014285b8f7fc7f5f50071c8ca.jpg 345a5d68282f6cab5549f0fb01a9f93a https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/94b1fd3f32e3f102cf2f20c2b3115d86.jpg 5bba77b980eaa40e5cb78b72378fbb74 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document THE MISTY ISLE OF SKYE CHAPTER I CHARACTERISTICS “Skye's romantic shore.”—Scott. THERE are travelled persons, deeply read in 1 Baedeker and Murray, who merely ignore the Isle of Skye. To others, untravelled, it is only a name; while to both it is dimly suggestive of some- thing remote and savage and windy, a weary land where the comforts of civilisation are not to be had for love or money. Yearly, a few adventurous tourists come as birds of passage, or, if they are sportsmen, armed with rod and gun, stay for a longer period. Their impressions are various, de- pending on the personal equation, still more upon the weather. If it rains, they are ready to curse God and die. If the sun shines and the air is still and the sky blue, they affect to believe themselves the victims of an illusion, and can scarce credit that anything so fine should dare to exist so far away. But let them be as open-minded as they please, or as favourably dealt with as can be, they do not enjoy to the full the flavour of the Isle of Skye. The tourist is too much engaged scampering from hotel to hotel, the sportsman too much preoccupied with birds and dogs, to understand the rare charm, or to 10 The Misty Isle of Skye discover even a tenth part of the beauty of Skye. For that, you must live there, year in, year out, summer and winter, in sunshine and storm; you must experience the marvellous charm of its spring and early summer days, when the air is like a fine wine and the landscape seems unreal because it is so beautiful ; you must let the gloom of its winter melancholy pierce your soul to its depths, until some morning you awaken to an enchanted day and the melancholy is routed, and you wonder that it ever could have been. And if you are not a native of Skye, but have come from the settled and common- place landscapes and surroundings of the south, all the more will the magic of the place charm and please you. On the other hand, it is possible that you will merely detest and hate the place, and wish yourself well out of it. You will be hard to please, and not open to magic influences. But you will either hate it or love it, for no via media has yet been discovered. The fact that Skye is an island, without railways and with (until lately) only indifferent roads, that it is so far removed from the busy centres of civilisation, and that its population is so scattered, has a curious effect. Living in a crowded district, one's interests are local, and one hardly knows what is happening even a few miles off. But here distance is nothing when you may have to go ten miles to visit a neighbour. Everyone is known to you, whether they live east or west, north or south ; and every- thing that goes on becomes almost a personal interest to you. In olden days, when the people of all the larger houses were nearly all related, this was even more striking, and news travelled apace from one corner to another, even when there was no telegraph to carry it. This is all the more surprising when it is considered that the island is fifty miles long and from seven to twenty-five broad, and that every part of it is isolated from another by hills and valleys, streams and winding sea-lochs. For this Characteristics Il last reason the length of coast-line is out of all proportion to the area, and measures thousands of miles. The area of the island is, roughly, 350,000 acres. On the map the Isle of Skye, with its numerous peninsulas (like flying buttresses) starting outwards from a common centre, is suggestive of some strange wild-fowl. Hence travellers from the sixteenth century onwards have derived its native name Eilean Sgiathanach from the Gaelic sgiath, a wing, transformed in the Norse sagas into Skid. 1 Whether, without a map, the winged formation would be likely to strike the primitive inhabitant is uncertain. Other learned philologists debate the claims of roots signifying cloud, mist, and sword, or maintain that here stood the winged temple which fable apportioned to Apollo among the Hyper- boreans. But it is a far cry from Hellas to Skye, and only pedantic Celtic antiquaries (the most pedantic of all pedants) will trace the connection. To Oisin (or Macpherson) the island is always Eilean a Cheo, the Isle of Mist. These peninsulas are most pronounced to the north and the south, but on the eastern and western sides there is a series of curtailed promontories, divided by narrow lochs. They present a curious variety of surface and seaboard. On the north the peninsulas are formed of wild and tumbled uplands, rising into strangely contorted rocks at Storr and Quiraing, with precipitous cliffs on the eastern coast- line. In the west these uplands mount occasionally into considerable hills with heathery flanks and flattened summits. The southern region resumes the upland country, but is so much more fertile as to be called “the garden of Skye.” It is in the centre and running across the island from north-east to south-west that the great mountains are found, 1 Ptolemy transliterated the native name into Greek, Kütus; in ecclesiastical Latin (Adamnan's, for example) the island is called Scia. 12 The Misty Isle of Skye rounded and massy and huddled together to the north-east; steep, precipitous, and splintered towards the south-west, where the Coolins dominate the land- scape for many a mile. All these breezy uplands are covered with heather and bent, bracken and bog-myrtle, which, on warm summer days, make the air fragrant with odorous scents such as Keats would have loved. They are given over to sheep, save where in more or less fertile patches the crofting population seek their livelihood from the soil. But they are empty solitudes where one may wander for a whole day and receive no human greeting. As far as eye can reach there are lines of gently swelling hills; you mount one, and still they deploy to the horizon, or suddenly lose them- selves in a narrow loch or the wider sea. Yet in this apparent monotony there is an in- finite variety. The summer glory of these uplands under a sapphire sky, surrounded by azure seas; their autumn and winter melancholy; the splintered summits looming grimly in the distance; here and there steep, windy headlands; green valleys with burns tinkling down to the sea ; the glorious tang of the breeze; the ever-changing mystic lights and shadows-these, with the hoary traditions and tales of eld which are suggested by them at every step, are pleasures which do not easily pall. Thus the Isle of Skye offers such a bundle of delights as are not easily found in any place even less remote than it is from the busy centres of life and the madding crowd. To the exterior eye it presents so many natural features that the bare catalogue of them bewilders, how much more does the joyous experience of them fascinate. Great basalt cliffs hang their steep castellated fronts above a brilliant green slope, and face the sea. From their top you gaze down a thousand feet into a vast abysmal depth of blue water, or across its sundering tide to the dark summits of the northern counties. Far out to sea on the western side are Characteristics 13 purple islands gleaming on the horizon. Above you are the immeasurable spaces of the sky, across which a seabird now poises itself like some uncertain angel, and now darts off with an incredible swift- ness and dæmonic clamour. Here and there the sea sends long arms far inland, so that the unvoyaged islander (to whom Portree is a metropolis and Glasgow a merely mythical Babylon), confined to his moorland solitudes, can touch the pulse of the unseen and infinite ocean, on which stately ships are hurrying to far lands beyond the sunrise and the sunset, where are busy ports thronged with men and echoing with the hum of endless activity. To speak by the map and the geographer's compass, no part of the island, large as it is, lies four miles from the sea, so much is it broken up by these lochs winding in among the moors and the bases of the hills. This recurring presence of the sea has a strange fascina- tion for the mind. It presents itself in the most unexpected places. The solid masses of the Coolins, or the broad miles of rolling uplands, suggest a land free from these indentations and murmuring waters. But no; you have scarce proceeded half a league when you skirt the upper reaches of a sea-loch, and in the next mile or two you are walking by the edge of a second. Inland and around these lochs the billowy moor- land swells and falls, or mounts up into a con- siderable hill. From these hills the air comes pure from its high elevation and sweet with a hundred rustic odours of upland flowers. Its extent and its mysterious hollows, its black peat-hags, and its strange silence, suggest weird thoughts of ambushes, of hidden deeds, of brooding secrets, until you almost expect some voice, tired of its immemorial silence, to shout them aloud to all the winds. In summer and autumn the moor exhilarates with its omnipresent perfume wafted from bog-myrtle and bracken, while it seems to fling itself to the horizon in a purple garment dappled with emerald green. 14 The Misty Isle of Skye But in winter and early spring that green has become a wan white, and the purple has turned to a dingy brown, and the sombre landscape seems to speak of still deeper mysteries. Every varying expression of the face of the sky, its summer joy, its April doubt, its winter gloom, is reflected with conscientious exactness on this equally expressive moorland countenance. A great part of these uplands forms a rich and happy hunting-ground for the sportsman. Grouse, snipe, woodcock, and hares are found in plenty. Some of the loftier ground gives sanctuary to the red deer, with which the island must have teemed at one time, for in the sixteenth century organised hunts, in which a thousand head were killed, took place among the Red Hills. But the greater part of Skye is let out in sheep-farms, for, like the Homeric Ithaca, it is a pasture - land of sheep, and more pleasant in my sight than one that pastureth horses; for of all the isles that lie and lean upon the sea, none are fit for the driving of horses, or rich in meadow- land, and least of all is Ithaca. The pasture is scanty enough in winter, when the uplands are like a moist sponge with the rains; and the bulk of the hoggs have to be sent to the mainland in autumn, to return in spring, but, like the daffodil, “before the swallow does." Here, too, are none of the active, shaggy, goat-like sheep of Uist and St. Kilda; only the familiar black-face and Cheviot ; but the flavour of their flesh has gained something, and the fame of Skye mutton has passed into a proverb. The crofters, who covet earnestly the best land and would seize it, if they could, re- gardless of ownership, hate sheep-farms and sheep alike, and, in their native Gaelic, which I translate for the mere Sassenach, describe the animals as “ beastly brutes of poll-heads.” As for their language towards farmers and lairds, let the rest be silence! Large fortunes were once amassed 1 Odyssey, iv. 610, Lang's translation. Characteristics 15 by Skye farmers, and more than one small tenant- farmer, beginning in a humble way, has found himself in the glorious company of the nouveaux riches before he died. But the day for that is over, and much more modest returns must be looked for. Of the hills and mountains of Skye there will be much to say. It is enough here to recall their haunting presence, their magic lights, the solemn grandeur and beauty that is theirs at all times of the year. You look at them across the wide moors, and they touch the last cloud upon the level sky. Steeped in moonlight or clad in glittering snow under a cloudless sky, they seem ethereal, trans- parent. At dawn and sunset, every scaur and hollow, every corrie and precipice, has all the definite clearness of a fine steel engraving. Or when wreaths of mist roll along their flanks, or cloud-masses huddle together around them, they are still grand and impressive. Seeing them under these varied conditions, and with ever-changing nuances of light or colour, you would vow there are no such hills elsewhere. Those who have not so seen them will scoff-and no doubt the vow marks the insular mind; but what is their sneer against the opinion of an eye-witness? Again, there is infinite delight in the colours of the landscape. Mostly these are what the indif- ferent would call sad and monotonous. Yet can the keen eye discover something richer. Even in winter there is variety, and there is a gorgeousness about the moors and the hillsides, when late autumn turns the bracken to a rich brown, and the sun casts blue shadows everywhere, which is not to be gainsaid. Often, too, at high summer noontides there comes a blue Italian sky, which is at once discredited by those who do not know the island when they see it reproduced by the artist. Then the sea is turned to a deeper azure, flecked with whitest foam where it swings unceasingly against the cliffs. The seabird, poising itself overhead, 16 The Misty Isle of Skye has wings of transparent alabaster, through which the blue heaven seems almost visible. Ireland itself cannot have greener valleys than Skye; nor could the choicest English woodland or meadow boast a richer variety or a greater luxuriance of wildflowers. And if the air is still, and you have risen with the lark, and inhaled the rich odour of the moorland air, you will say that nature looks as fresh and as young as it first did on the seventh morning before Paradise had been lost. As day wears on, the blaze of sunshine touches everything with a dull burnish of gold. The island is indolent as ever was the land of the lotus-eaters, and there is no mountain nor crag but has lost its ruggedness and now seems voluptuous with gentle swellings and softened curves. Yet it would be futile to deny the desolation of Skye in some of its aspects. Let the clouds hang low down overhead and everywhere around on a short winter day, as if they would crush the land ; let the rain fall in blinding torrents for weeks, and the morning dawn cheerless over a dripping land. scape ; let the wind rave across the moorland with pitiless incessancy; and let there be the least melancholy in your heart, and then you will know something of the abomination of desolation. You will understand “that distress” (of which Mau- passant writes so grimly) “which sometimes seizes travellers on certain sad evenings, in certain desolate places. It seems that everything is near its ending -existence and the universe itself. You perceive sharply the dreadful misery of life, the isolation of everyone, the nothingness of all things, and the black loneliness of the heart which nurses itself and deceives itself with dreams until the hour of death." So it is, sometimes, in Skye; until there comes a day of sunshine, and all is forgotten, and the desolation passes away as if it had never been. Throughout the island are many houses, bare, unattractive, but strong stone structures, the homes Characteristics 17 of many generations, standing solitary on the moor, or hidden away under the kindly fold of a hill. To live in them is to call up a hundred phantoms of the past, to touch bygone years, to listen unawares to Time's stolen flight. Nor is there wanting a sense of depression as one thinks how these walls once held so many who have now fallen on sleep. No old house is ever without these sad memories and pallid gleams of past years. But the vast solitudes in which these Skye houses are set, the miles of road traversed to approach them, the brooding silence that hangs around their walls, as if pregnant with some mystery which is always on the point of being revealed, intensify this haunting sense of those who made them their caravanserai. There, in years gone by, the gentlemen tacksmen, cadets sometimes of the great houses, dwelt, and their sons went forth to fight the battles of their country. From one of them it is said that more officers came during the Peninsular War than from any other single house in the British Empire. Many of these houses' are small, and but little better than cottages. They could have contained but few of the luxuries of life; yet from them came scores of the brave soldiers and builders of our empire, and they were often lit up by festive occasions, the dance, the cheerful laughter of unencumbered hearts, the smiles of fair women. Boswell's Journal of the famous tour shows at once the comfort in discomfort which prevailed, and contains many a picture of the happy houseful of friends, who were mostly kinsmen, crowded into a few small rooms, where constant good-humour, aided (can we doubt it) by copious drams, prevailed. The grey and brown landscape seems to forbid such prettiness in architecture as the Swiss châlet, hanging on the mountain-side, exhibits. The crofter's hut, with its low, lichen-covered walls, and its roof thatched with the materials of the surrounding moor, seems to have grown out of its surroundings. It is a product of nature, not of 18 The Misty Isle of Skye art, or rather of the artificer. It rhymes with the sober landscape, and partakes of its shaggy wildness. Even the larger houses have the same unadorned character, plain grey stone walls, four square gables, built for use not beauty. Such a castle as Dunvegan has the same natural appear- ance as these small unarchitectural attempts at house-building. It forms no break in the landscape, but seems only a more shapely form of the rock on which it stands. No bird-haunted lawns, no terraces and stairways, separate stately decorated walls from the surrounding landscape. Grim keep and ancient tower and worn battlements join hand-in- hand with the brown moorland, the shaggy wood- land, and the lapping waves. They who reared it in centuries gone by “built better than they knew," or else had a true sense of the relation of art and nature to each other. But there is a still more remote antiquity than those old stone walls hint of. There are ruined heaps on windy hillocks; mounds of stone under- neath which lie the mighty bones of ancient men, old knights; a few roughly sculptured monuments. They speak silently of old, unhappy, far-of things, and of unremembered wars, which have left no record in history, scarce even has their faint echo been preserved in local tradition. The moor-bird flies around them with its wailing cry, as if regret- ting old mortality, but of the men who placed them there or whose deeds they commemorate, the rest is silence. Norse names, especially in the north and west, testify to raids by these ancient sea-wolves, and of a Scandinavian occupation long enough to have made itself felt in the nomenclature, though it scarcely survives in race. History speaks of Haco and his fleet, and Kyleakin is Haco's Strait; but tradition is once more silent, leaving to the philologist the task of explaining the place names by Norwegian parallels. Of the race earlier than the Celtic — Neolithic, Characteristics 19 possibly Pictish–there remain still scantier traces, whether of their social life, their manners, or their religion. Yet in these green valleys and along the shores of the sea-lochs they must have formed a dense population. There are to be seen, not plenti- fully but occasionally, “Picts' houses,” stone circles, and burial-chambers, and at times the arms and utensils of these early generations are dug out of the peat. They speak dumbly of the manners and customs of a far-distant past, and hint to us moderns that the same human heart beat then, and cherished such hopes and fears, such loves and hates, then, as it does now. And the story of the rocks of Skye carries the mind back to an unpeopled and illimitable past. Ice-scratched cliffs, rôches - moutonnées, beds of boulder clay, tell of the time when vast glaciers crept down these green valleys to the outer sea. The terraced uplands, the purple Coolins, and the Red Hills, carry us over millions of years to the Tertiary period, when great plateaux of lava were laid down, and within and beneath them internal outbursts took place through an enormous period of time. Beneath these lie beds of strata, crowded with fossils, witnessing to ages of submersion when the island lay beneath the midmost sea. Thus, in Skye, antiquity accompanies one at every step, and the mind has a liberal choice of bygone ages to revel in, from the romantic days of Prince Charlie back through the voiceless generations to those dim ages when the island was built up, stratum by stratum, out of the unknown deep. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Paper book, 320 pages total. Chapter one included here, pp. 9-19. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The misty Isle of Skye: its scenery, its people, its story. Chapter 1: Characteristics Description An account of the resource Offers an overview of the geographic, climate, and cultural characteristics of the Isle of Skye. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource J. A. MacCulloch (1868-1950) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived HathiTrust EBook, print book owned by Indiana University, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/inu.39000005762096 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book, EBook Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Published in Edinburgh, by Oliphant. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1910 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain in the United States, Google-digitized Language A language of the resource English Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPEG scans of print book https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/dba351b012e3d2a1a07677a16d3e91f9.jpg 948cd7e4c6ab35a4b4034b2ec595b96e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Text Any textual data included in the document THE PALM TREES AND MAIN GATE Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Palm Trees and Main Gate Description An account of the resource A 1908 painting of Kew Gardens by T. Mower Martin on page 112 of the book "Kew Gardens" written by A.R. Hope Moncrieff. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource T. Mower Martine, painter and A.R. Hope Moncrieff, author Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived HathiTrust EBook, print copy owned by University of Michigan, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015042610173?urlappend=%3Bseq=155%3Bownerid=13510798901226544-179 Type The nature or genre of the resource Print in paper book Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Adam and Charles Black London Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1908 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain in the United States, Google-digitized. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPEG scan of print book Language A language of the resource English Empire https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/cce134b60c15acca2a283db22ea4ff3c.jpg fdf685ba346ea59836d3e6efa89f20f1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Silver print photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 10.3 x 14.7 cm. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Talland House Description An account of the resource Photograph of Talland House, the summer residence of the Stephen family from 1882-1894. Photographer is unknown; this image is reproduced from Leslie Stephen's photo album. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Smith College Special Collections: https://www.smith.edu/libraries/libs/rarebook/exhibitions/stephen/37c.htm Type The nature or genre of the resource Photograph, Image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Presented by Quentin and Anne Olivier Bell. Mortimer Rare Book Room, Smith College Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource c. 1882-1894 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Leslie Stephen Photograph Album, Mortimer Rare Book Room, Smith College. https://findingaids.smith.edu/repositories/3/resources/428 Accessed November 22, 2021. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPEG scan of original silver print Cornwall St. Ives https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/92b1d4052d42a22ab6e09dfed7e0a4ba.jpg c84396b579bf1d40bef65ab7f4eed17b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Atlantic Ocean &c. Shewing the Communication between Europe, North America and the Pacific Description An account of the resource Map of the north Atlantic detailing ocean currents and other trans-Atlantic communications and phenomena. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived William C. Wonders Map Collection, Cameron Library, University of Alberta: https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CHKLBZ448030163/NCCO?u=loyolau&sid=bookmark-NCCO&xid=47f89fdc&pg=1 Type The nature or genre of the resource Map, Image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Gale Primary Sources Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1870 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix Language A language of the resource English Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPEG scan of paper map https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/39ca4ddbd93986fb6854e7af4813ba08.jpeg 9421ecd4440fb4caa944a70c3a323b87 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document ROOKS AND MEN.,ALLIES OF CIVIL LIFE.,(FROMI A CORESPOXDENT.),When celandines are sprinkled about the roots of the beeches, and elm crowns show red with blossom, the rooks begin to build with the decent deliberation that beseems them. Otlher birds of the wise crow tribe begin earlierthe ravens' eggs are nearly hatching by the time that the rooks' are laid-and magpies wait till April, and jays till May. But rooks in most things observe the golden mean; and merely to glance at the ripe solemnity and order which attend their nesting is to be sure that they act with reason. They nest, in fact, when a plentiful supply of writhing life in turf and clod will attend the due hatching of their young; and all birds which have a settled home tend to build earlier in the year than their wandering kin. We see the same among our domiciled garden song-thrushes, which are three weeks or a month in advance of their vagrant brothers in the fields; and rooks, in small newly-formed rookeries, or the occasional solitary pairs, are later than t}-ose of the long-established conmunities.,Most birds require at nesting-time the undisputed sporting rights over a certain estate. They will share the same territory with families of other species, but not with rivals who would trench on the same food supply for their nurseries. Rooks evade the necessity of solitude, partly by being able to gather a living from almost any tract of cultivated land, but also by an inbred civility of disposition. They consort together with humanity of intercourse. Gregarious birds never sing, for singing is with birds an expression of defiance. But rooks undoubtedly converse, if we do not use the term in an exacting sense; they prate aloud in company, and appear to feel all the better for it. What wonder if birds of such temper have occasionally been credited by the sympathetic race of men with more of our own attributes than t-hey perhaps possess ? If those pompous conclaves, that retiral in the dusky elms, do not represent an actual parliament of the rooks, or a criminal case conducted vith due forms of precedent, they may dispatch the rooks' affairs with equal advantage, and the compliment be no less sincere.,Tl'empting although it may be, and permissiblo in poetry, to depict the evening gatherings of the rooks as met to discuss the welfare of their realm,,If aught their ancient polity displease,,there is no real evidence among them of a settled j ulicial or deliberative procedure. If common action results from one of these loud dcbates, it is due not to reasoned argument or conclusive demonstration by some inky rhetorician, but to some mere gust of general impulse or the perception that it is time to go to bed. Rooks' justice is of the primitive retributive sort, and generally displays itself in a vigorous counter-attack on such unrooklike rooks as have attempted to pilfer the material of their neighbours' half-built nests. Their social sense sometimes extends so far as to impel a number of them to collective action against an offender; but there is summary justice and short shrift. In the main they are a peaceable and domestic race, and in their youth playful withal. Young rooks are scarcer pets than young ravens or magpies, but hardly less intelligent and amusing. They lack th~e bare white patch at the base of the bill which distinguishes the adult rook, and are whiskered, lik e the carrion crow.,ATTActiE5IEr TO AEICtuLTURE.,Crows are flesh-feeders, like ravens; but rooks are mote vegetarian in their diet, and much more closely attached to agriculturo. Broadly speaking, their vegetarianism is from our partial human standpoint a vice; for as vegetarians they consume seed corn and potatoes, but as flesh-feeders they destroy wireworm and other pests of the crops. It is often a delicate matter to strike a balance between the services of rooks in eating other pests and their misdeeds as posts themselves; and they stand on the border-line of the farmers' friends and enemies, though in the main on the right side. Excess of numbers over the available supply of unobjectionable food is the usual cause of their joining the enemy; and spring droughts, which seal the soil against the-r probing bills, also force them to a less discriminating and more crow-like diet. On the whole, they are sufficiently virtuous in the absence of temptation; and if that seems not much to say on behalf of birds so respectable of mien, we should remember that it may not be clear to a rook whether we cultivate our land for the sake of producing wheat or wireworms.,Rooks are earTy risers, and late in going to roost. By the time that most people see them at this tirne of year they are busy about their nests in the tree-tops, or soberly pacing the arable fields for their worms, or their wheat. But they still spend the night in their roosts in the thicker and deeper woeds where they found shelter through winter. These roosts, which they often share with jackdaws, are usually more secluded than the rookeries where they nest; and it is due to the rooks' ,intelligence that they abandon, as a rule, at nesting-time these haunts proper to wilder and shyer birds, and rear their young in the neighbourhood of men. The earliest object of the rooks in leaving their woodland haunts was probably to gain easy access to cultivated land in times when the proportion of forest to tillage was far greater. Soon they learnt that human society gives comparative protection frorn birds of prey, and took shelter, so to speak, under man's wing. Before sunrise on these March mornings, when the east is smeared with smoky light, the rooks wake with many cawings in their silvan roost, and fare [forth, before the valleys are fully awake, to their business among the haunts of men. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Newsprint Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Rooks and Men: Allies of Civil Life Description An account of the resource Article printed in the London Times dealing with the habits of rooks in British gardens. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource "A Correspondent" Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived The Times Digital Archive, Gale Primary Sources: https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS152636026/TTDA?u=loyolau&sid=bookmark-TTDA&xid=de813217 Type The nature or genre of the resource Newspaper Article, Text Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Times Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Tuesday, Mar. 26, 1918 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource © Times Newspapers Limited. Language A language of the resource English Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource JPEG scan of newsprint