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Title A name given to the resource Appendix A: Aesthetic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the aesthetic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rosie Frehe and Grace Watkins Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document AN ESSAY IN ÆSTHETICS[2] ACERTAIN painter, not without some reputation at the present day, once wrote a little book on the art he practises, in which he gave a definition of that art so succinct that I take it as a point of departure for this essay. “The art of painting,” says that eminent authority, “is the art of imitating solid objects upon a flat surface by means of pigments.” It is delightfully simple, but prompts the question—Is that all? And, if so, what a deal of unnecessary fuss has been made about it. Now, it is useless to deny that our modern writer has some very respectable authorities behind him. Plato, indeed, gave a very similar account of the affair, and himself put the question—is it then worth while? And, being scrupulously and relentlessly logical, he decided that it was not worth while, and proceeded to turn the artists out of his ideal republic. For all that, the world has continued obstinately to consider that painting was worth while, and though, indeed, it has never quite made up its mind as to what, exactly, the graphic arts did for it, it has persisted in honouring and admiring its painters. Can we arrive at any conclusions as to the nature of the graphic arts, which will at all explain our feelings about them, which will at least put them into some kind of relation with the other arts, and not leave us in the extreme perplexity, engendered by any theory of mere imitation? For, I suppose, it must be admitted that if imitation is the sole purpose of the graphic arts, it is surprising that the works of such arts are ever looked upon as more than curiosities, or ingenious toys, are ever taken seriously by grown-up people. Moreover, it will be surprising that they have no recognisable affinity with other arts, such as music or architecture, in which the imitation of actual objects is a negligible quantity. To form such conclusions is the aim I have put before myself in this essay. Even if the results are not decisive, the inquiry may lead us to a view of the graphic arts that will not be altogether unfruitful.{12} I must begin with some elementary psychology, with a consideration of the nature of instincts. A great many objects in the world, when presented to our senses, put in motion a complex nervous machinery, which ends in some instinctive appropriate action. We see a wild bull in a field; quite without our conscious interference a nervous process goes on, which, unless we interfere forcibly, ends in the appropriate reaction of flight. The nervous mechanism which results in flight causes a certain state of consciousness, which we call the emotion of fear. The whole of animal life, and a great part of human life, is made up of these instinctive reactions to sensible objects, and their accompanying emotions. But man has the peculiar faculty of calling up again in his mind the echo of past experiences of this kind, of going over it again, “in imagination” as we say. He has, therefore, the possibility of a double life; one the actual life, the other the imaginative life. Between these two lives there is this great distinction, that in the actual life the processes of natural selection have brought it about that the instinctive reaction, such, for instance, as flight from danger, shall be the important part of the whole process, and it is towards this that the man bends his whole conscious endeavour. But in the imaginative life no such action is necessary, and, therefore, the whole consciousness may be focussed upon the perceptive and the emotional aspects of the experience. In this way we get, in the imaginative life, a different set of values, and a different kind of perception. We can get a curious side glimpse of the nature of this imaginative life from the cinematograph. This resembles actual life in almost every respect, except that what the psychologists call the conative part of our reaction to sensations, that is to say, the appropriate resultant action is cut off. If, in a cinematograph, we see a runaway horse and cart, we do not have to think either of getting out of the way or heroically interposing ourselves. The result is that in the first place we see the event much more clearly; see a number of quite interesting but irrelevant things, which in real life could not struggle into our consciousness, bent, as it would be, entirely upon the problem of our appropriate reaction. I remember seeing in a cinematograph the arrival of a train at a foreign station and the people descending from the carriages; there was no platform, and to my{13} intense surprise I saw several people turn right round after reaching the ground, as though to orientate themselves; an almost ridiculous performance, which I had never noticed in all the many hundred occasions on which such a scene had passed before my eyes in real life. The fact being that at a station one is never really a spectator of events, but an actor engaged in the drama of luggage or prospective seats, and one actually sees only so much as may help to the appropriate action. In the second place, with regard to the visions of the cinematograph, one notices that whatever emotions are aroused by them, though they are likely to be weaker than those of ordinary life, are presented more clearly to the consciousness. If the scene presented be one of an accident, our pity and horror, though weak, since we know that no one is really hurt, are felt quite purely, since they cannot, as they would in life, pass at once into actions of assistance. A somewhat similar effect to that of the cinematograph can be obtained by watching a mirror in which a street scene is reflected. If we look at the street itself we are almost sure to adjust ourselves in some way to its actual existence. We recognise an acquaintance, and wonder why he looks so dejected this morning, or become interested in a new fashion in hats—the moment we do that the spell is broken, we are reacting to life itself in however slight a degree, but, in the mirror, it is easier to abstract ourselves completely, and look upon the changing scene as a whole. It then, at once, takes on the visionary quality, and we become true spectators, not selecting what we will see, but seeing everything equally, and thereby we come to notice a number of appearances and relations of appearances, which would have escaped our vision before, owing to that perpetual economising by selection of what impressions we will assimilate, which in life we perform by unconscious processes. The frame of the mirror then, does, to some extent, turn the reflected scene from one that belongs to our actual life into one that belongs rather to the imaginative life. The frame of the mirror makes its surface into a very rudimentary work of art, since it helps us to attain to the artistic vision. For that is what, as you will already have guessed, I have been coming to all this time, namely that the work of art is intimately connected{14} with the secondary imaginative life, which all men live to a greater or lesser extent. That the graphic arts are the expression of the imaginative life rather than a copy of actual life might be guessed from observing children. Children, if left to themselves, never, I believe, copy what they see, never, as we say, “draw from nature,” but express, with a delightful freedom and sincerity, the mental images which make up their own imaginative lives. Art, then, is an expression and a stimulus of this imaginative life, which is separated from actual life by the absence of responsive action. Now this responsive action implies in actual life moral responsibility. In art we have no such moral responsibility—it presents a life freed from the binding necessities of our actual existence. What then is the justification for this life of the imagination which all human beings live more or less fully? To the pure moralist, who accepts nothing but ethical values, in order to be justified, it must be shown not only not to hinder but actually to forward right action, otherwise it is not only useless but, since it absorbs our energies, positively harmful. To such a one two views are possible, one the Puritanical view at its narrowest, which regards the life of the imagination as no better or worse than a life of sensual pleasure, and therefore entirely reprehensible. The other view is to argue that the imaginative life does subserve morality. And this is inevitably the view taken by moralists like Ruskin, to whom the imaginative life is yet an absolute necessity. It is a view which leads to some very hard special pleading, even to a self-deception which is in itself morally undesirable. But here comes in the question of religion, for religion is also an affair of the imaginative life, and, though it claims to have a direct effect upon conduct, I do not suppose that the religious person if he were wise would justify religion entirely by its effect on morality, since that, historically speaking, has not been by any means uniformly advantageous. He would probably say that the religious experience was one which corresponded to certain spiritual capacities of human nature, the exercise of which is in itself good and desirable apart from their effect upon actual life. And so, too, I think the artist might if he chose take a mystical attitude, and declare that the fullness and completeness of the imaginative life he leads may correspond to{15} an existence more real and more important than any that we know of in mortal life. And in saying that, his appeal would find a sympathetic echo in most minds, for most people would, I think, say that the pleasures derived from art were of an altogether different character and more fundamental than merely sensual pleasures, that they did exercise some faculties which are felt to belong to whatever part of us there may be which is not entirely ephemeral and material. It might even be that from this point of view we should rather justify actual life by its relation to the imaginative, justify nature by its likeness to art. I mean this, that since the imaginative life comes in the course of time to represent more or less what mankind feels to be the completest expression of its own nature, the freest use of its innate capacities, the actual life may be explained and justified in its approximation here and there, however partially and inadequately, to that freer and fuller life. Before leaving this question of the justification of art, let me put it in another way. The imaginative life of a people has very different levels at different times, and these levels do not always correspond with the general level of the morality of actual life. Thus in the thirteenth century we read of barbarity and cruelty which would shock even us; we may I think admit that our moral level, our general humanity is decidedly higher to-day, but the level of our imaginative life is incomparably lower; we are satisfied there with a grossness, a sheer barbarity and squalor which would have shocked the thirteenth century profoundly. Let us admit the moral gain gladly, but do we not also feel a loss; do we not feel that the average business man would be in every way a more admirable, more respectable being if his imaginative life were not so squalid and incoherent? And, if we admit any loss then, there is some function in human nature other than a purely ethical one, which is worthy of exercise. Now the imaginative life has its own history both in the race and in the individual. In the individual life one of the first effects of freeing experience from the necessities of appropriate responsive action is to indulge recklessly the emotion of self-aggrandisement. The day-dreams of a child are filled with extravagant romances in which he is always the invincible hero. Music—which of all the arts{16} supplies the strongest stimulus to the imaginative life, and at the same time has the least power of controlling its direction—music, at certain stages of people’s lives, has the effect merely of arousing in an almost absurd degree this egoistic elation, and Tolstoy appears to believe that this is its only possible effect. But with the teaching of experience and the growth of character the imaginative life comes to respond to other instincts and to satisfy other desires, until, indeed, it reflects the highest aspirations and the deepest aversions of which human nature is capable. In dreams and when under the influence of drugs the imaginative life passes out of our own control, and in such cases its experiences may be highly undesirable, but whenever it remains under our own control it must always be on the whole a desirable life. That is not to say that it is always pleasant, for it is pretty clear that mankind is so constituted as to desire much besides pleasure, and we shall meet among the great artists, the great exponents, that is, of the imaginative life, many to whom the merely pleasant is very rarely a part of what is desirable. But this desirability of the imaginative life does distinguish it very sharply from actual life, and is the direct result of that first fundamental difference, its freedom from necessary external conditions. Art, then, is, if I am right, the chief organ of the imaginative life, it is by art that it is stimulated and controlled within us, and, as we have seen, the imaginative life is distinguished by the greater clearness of its perception, and the greater purity and freedom of its emotion. First with regard to the greater clearness of perception. The needs of our actual life are so imperative, that the sense of vision becomes highly specialised in their service. With an admirable economy we learn to see only so much as is needful for our purposes; but this is in fact very little, just enough to recognise and identify each object or person; that done, they go into an entry in our mental catalogue and are no more really seen. In actual life the normal person really only reads the labels as it were on the objects around him and troubles no further. Almost all the things which are useful in any way put on more or less this cap of invisibility. It is only when an object exists in our lives for no other purpose than to be seen that we really look at it, as for instance at a China ornament or a precious{17} stone, and towards such even the most normal person adopts to some extent the artistic attitude of pure vision abstracted from necessity. Now this specialisation of vision goes so far that ordinary people have almost no idea of what things really look like, so that oddly enough the one standard that popular criticism applies to painting, namely, whether it is like nature or not, is one which most people are, by the whole tenour of their lives, prevented from applying properly. The only things they have ever really looked at being other pictures; the moment an artist who has looked at nature brings to them a clear report of something definitely seen by him, they are wildly indignant at its untruth to nature. This has happened so constantly in our own time that there is no need to prove it. One instance will suffice. Monet is an artist whose chief claim to recognition lies in the fact of his astonishing power of faithfully reproducing certain aspects of nature, but his really naïve innocence and sincerity was taken by the public to be the most audacious humbug, and it required the teaching of men like Bastien-Lepage, who cleverly compromised between the truth and an accepted convention of what things looked like, to bring the world gradually round to admitting truths which a single walk in the country with purely unbiassed vision would have established beyond doubt. But though this clarified sense perception which we discover in the imaginative life is of great interest, and although it plays a larger part in the graphic arts than in any other, it might perhaps be doubted whether, interesting, curious, fascinating as it is, this aspect of the imaginative life would ever by itself make art of profound importance to mankind. But it is different, I think, with the emotional aspect. We have admitted that the emotions of the imaginative are generally weaker than those of actual life. The picture of a saint being slowly flayed alive, revolting as it is, will not produce the actual physical sensations of sickening disgust that a modern man would feel if he could assist at the actual event; but they have a compensating clearness of presentment to the consciousness. The more poignant emotions of actual life have, I think, a kind of numbing effect analogous to the paralysing influence of fear in some animals; but even if this experience be not generally admitted, all will admit that the need for responsive action hurries us along and prevents us from ever realising{18} fully what the emotion is that we feel, from co-ordinating it perfectly with other states. In short, the motives we actually experience are too close to us to enable us to feel them clearly. They are in a sense unintelligible. In the imaginative life, on the contrary, we can both feel the emotion and watch it. When we are really moved at the theatre we are always both on the stage and in the auditorium. Yet another point about the emotions of the imaginative life—since they require no responsive action we can give them a new valuation. In real life we must to some extent cultivate those emotions which lead to useful action, and we are bound to appraise emotions according to the resultant action. So that, for instance, the feelings of rivalry and emulation do get an encouragement which perhaps they scarcely deserve, whereas certain feelings which appear to have a high intrinsic value get almost no stimulus in actual life. For instance, those feelings to which the name of the cosmic emotion has been somewhat unhappily given find almost no place in life, but, since they seem to belong to certain very deep springs of our nature, do become of great importance in the arts. Morality, then, appreciates emotion by the standard of resultant action. Art appreciates emotion in and for itself. This view of the essential importance in art of the expression of the emotions is the basis of Tolstoy’s marvellously original and yet perverse and even exasperating book, “What is Art,” and I willingly confess, while disagreeing with almost all his results, how much I owe to him. He gives an example of what he means by calling art the means of communicating emotions. He says, let us suppose a boy to have been pursued in the forest by a bear. If he returns to the village and merely states that he was pursued by a bear and escaped, that is ordinary language, the means of communicating facts or ideas; but if he describes his state first of heedlessness, then of sudden alarm and terror as the bear appears, and finally of relief when he gets away, and describes this so that his hearers share his emotions, then his description is a work of art. Now in so far as the boy does this in order to urge the villagers to go out and kill the bear, though he may be using artistic methods, his speech is not a pure work of art; but if of a winter evening the boy{19} relates his experience for the sake of the enjoyment of his adventure in retrospect, or better still, if he makes up the whole story for the sake of the imagined emotions, then his speech becomes a pure work of art. But Tolstoy takes the other view, and values the emotions aroused by art entirely for their reaction upon actual life, a view which he courageously maintains even when it leads him to condemn the whole of Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian, and most of Beethoven, not to mention nearly everything he himself has written, as bad or false art. Such a view would, I think, give pause to any less heroic spirit. He would wonder whether mankind could have always been so radically wrong about a function that, whatever its value be, is almost universal. And in point of fact he will have to find some other word to denote what we now call art. Nor does Tolstoy’s theory even carry him safely through his own book, since, in his examples of morally desirable and therefore good art, he has to admit that these are to be found, for the most part, among works of inferior quality. Here, then, is at once the tacit admission that another standard than morality is applicable. We must therefore give up the attempt to judge the work of art by its reaction on life, and consider it as an expression of emotions regarded as ends in themselves. And this brings us back to the idea we had already arrived at, of art as the expression of the imaginative life. If, then, an object of any kind is created by man not for use, for its fitness to actual life, but as an object of art, an object subserving the imaginative life, what will its qualities be? It must in the first place be adapted to that disinterested intensity of contemplation, which we have found to be the result of cutting off the responsive action. It must be suited to that heightened power of perception which we found to result therefrom. And the first quality that we demand in our sensations will be order, without which our sensations will be troubled and perplexed, and the other quality will be variety, without which they will not be fully stimulated. It may be objected that many things in nature, such as flowers, possess these two qualities of order and variety in a high degree, and these objects do undoubtedly stimulate and satisfy that clear{20} disinterested contemplation which is characteristic of the æsthetic attitude. But in our reaction to a work of art there is something more—there is the consciousness of purpose, the consciousness of a peculiar relation of sympathy with the man who made this thing in order to arouse precisely the sensations we experience. And when we come to the higher works of art, where sensations are so arranged that they arouse in us deep emotions, this feeling of a special tie with the man who expressed them becomes very strong. We feel that he has expressed something which was latent in us all the time, but which we never realised, that he has revealed us to ourselves in revealing himself. And this recognition of purpose is, I believe, an essential part of the æsthetic judgment proper. The perception of purposeful order and variety in an object gives us the feeling which we express by saying that it is beautiful, but when by means of sensations our emotions are aroused we demand purposeful order and variety in them also, and if this can only be brought about by the sacrifice of sensual beauty we willingly overlook its absence. Thus, there is no excuse for a china pot being ugly, there is every reason why Rembrandt’s and Degas’ pictures should be, from the purely sensual point of view, supremely and magnificently ugly. This, I think, will explain the apparent contradiction between two distinct uses of the word beauty, one for that which has sensuous charm, and one for the æsthetic approval of works of imaginative art where the objects presented to us are often of extreme ugliness. Beauty in the former sense belongs to works of art where only the perceptual aspect of the imaginative life is exercised, beauty in the second sense becomes as it were supersensual, and is concerned with the appropriateness and intensity of the emotions aroused. When these emotions are aroused in a way that satisfies fully the needs of the imaginative life we approve and delight in the sensations through which we enjoy that heightened experience, because they possess purposeful order and variety in relation to those emotions. One chief aspect of order in a work of art is unity; unity of some kind is necessary for our restful contemplation of the work of art as a whole, since if it lacks unity we cannot contemplate it in its entirety, but we shall pass outside it to other things necessary to complete its unity.{21} In a picture this unity is due to a balancing of the attractions to the eye about the central line of the picture. The result of this balance of attractions is that the eye rests willingly within the bounds of the picture. Dr. Denman Ross of Harvard University has made a most valuable study of the elementary considerations upon which this balance is based in his “Theory of Pure Design.” He sums up his results in the formula that a composition is of value in proportion to the number of orderly connections which it displays. Dr. Ross wisely restricts himself to the study of abstract and meaningless forms. The moment representation is introduced forms have an entirely new set of values. Thus a line which indicated the sudden bend of a head in a certain direction would have far more than its mere value as line in the composition because of the attraction which a marked gesture has for the eye. In almost all paintings this disturbance of the purely decorative values by reason of the representative effect takes place, and the problem becomes too complex for geometrical proof. This merely decorative unity is, moreover, of very different degrees of intensity in different artists and in different periods. The necessity for a closely woven geometrical texture in the composition is much greater in heroic and monumental design than in genre pieces on a small scale. It seems also probable that our appreciation of unity in pictorial design is of two kinds. We are so accustomed to consider only the unity which results from the balance of a number of attractions presented to the eye simultaneously in a framed picture that we forget the possibility of other pictorial forms. In certain Chinese paintings the length is so great that we cannot take in the whole picture at once, nor are we intended to do so. Sometimes a landscape is painted upon a roll of silk so long that we can only look at it in successive segments. As we unroll it at one end and roll it up at the other we traverse wide stretches of country, tracing, perhaps, all the vicissitudes of a river from its source to the sea, and yet, when this is well done, we have received a very keen impression of pictorial unity. Such a successive unity is of course familiar to us in literature and music, and it plays its part in the graphic arts. It depends upon{22} the forms being presented to us in such a sequence that each successive element is felt to have a fundamental and harmonious relation with that which preceded it. I suggest that in looking at drawings our sense of pictorial unity is largely of this nature; we feel, if the drawing be a good one, that each modulation of the line as our eye passes along it gives order and variety to our sensations. Such a drawing may be almost entirely lacking in the geometrical balance which we are accustomed to demand in paintings, and yet have, in a remarkable degree, unity. Let us now see how the artist passes from the stage of merely gratifying our demand for sensuous order and variety to that where he arouses our emotions. I will call the various methods by which this is effected, the emotional elements of design. The first element is that of the rhythm of the line with which the forms are delineated. The drawn line is the record of a gesture, and that gesture is modified by the artist’s feeling which is thus communicated to us directly. The second element is mass. When an object is so represented that we recognise it as having inertia we feel its power of resisting movement, or communicating its own movement to other bodies, and our imaginative reaction to such an image is governed by our experience of mass in actual life. The third element is space. The same sized square on two pieces of paper can be made by very simple means to appear to represent either a cube two or three inches high, or a cube of hundreds of feet, and our reaction to it is proportionately changed. The fourth element is that of light and shade. Our feelings towards the same object become totally different according as we see it strongly illuminated against a black background or dark against light. A fifth element is that of colour. That this has a direct emotional effect is evident from such words as gay, dull, melancholy in relation to colour. I would suggest the possibility of another element, though perhaps it is only a compound of mass and space: it is that of the inclination to the eye of a plane, whether it is impending over or leaning away from us.{23} Now it will be noticed that nearly all these emotional elements of design are connected with essential conditions of our physical existence: rhythm appeals to all the sensations which accompany muscular activity; mass to all the infinite adaptations to the force of gravity which we are forced to make; the spatial judgment is equally profound and universal in its application to life; our feeling about inclined planes is connected with our necessary judgments about the conformation of the earth itself; light, again, is so necessary a condition of our existence that we become intensely sensitive to changes in its intensity. Colour is the only one of our elements which is not of critical or universal importance to life, and its emotional effect is neither so deep nor so clearly determined as the others. It will be seen, then, that the graphic arts arouse emotions in us by playing upon what one may call the overtones of some of our primary physical needs. They have, indeed, this great advantage over poetry, that they can appeal more directly and immediately to the emotional accompaniments of our bare physical existence. If we represent these various elements in simple diagrammatic terms, this effect upon the emotions is, it must be confessed, very weak. Rhythm of line, for instance, is incomparably weaker in its stimulus of the muscular sense than is rhythm addressed to the ear in music, and such diagrams can at best arouse only faint ghost-like echoes of emotions of differing qualities; but when these emotional elements are combined with the presentation of natural appearances, above all with the appearance of the human body, we find that this effect is indefinitely heightened. When, for instance, we look at Michelangelo’s “Jeremiah,” and realise the irresistible momentum his movements would have, we experience powerful sentiments of reverence and awe. Or when we look at Michelangelo’s “Tondo” in the Uffizi, and find a group of figures so arranged that the planes have a sequence comparable in breadth and dignity to the mouldings of the earth mounting by clearly-felt gradations to an overtopping summit, innumerable instinctive reactions are brought into play.[3] {24} At this point the adversary (as Leonardi da Vinci calls him) is likely enough to retort, “You have abstracted from natural forms a number of so-called emotional elements which you yourself admit are very weak when stated with diagrammatic purity; you then put them back, with the help of Michelangelo, into the natural forms whence they were derived, and at once they have value, so that after all it appears that the natural forms contain these emotional elements ready made up for us, and all that art need do is to imitate Nature.” But, alas! Nature is heartlessly indifferent to the needs of the imaginative life; God causes His rain to fall upon the just and upon the unjust. The sun neglects to provide the appropriate limelight effect even upon a triumphant Napoleon or a dying Cæsar.[4] Assuredly we have no guarantee that in nature the emotional elements will be combined appropriately with the demands of the imaginative life, and it is, I think, the great occupation of the graphic arts to give us first of all order and variety in the sensuous plane, and then so to arrange the sensuous presentment of objects that the emotional elements are elicited with an order and appropriateness altogether beyond what Nature herself provides. Let me sum up for a moment what I have said about the relation of art to Nature, which is, perhaps, the greatest stumbling-block to the understanding of the graphic arts. I have admitted that there is beauty in Nature, that is to say, that certain objects constantly do, and perhaps any object may, compel us to regard it with that intense disinterested contemplation that belongs to the imaginative life, and which is impossible to the actual life of necessity and action; but that in objects created to arouse the æsthetic feeling we have an added consciousness of purpose on the part of the creator, that he made it on purpose not to be used but to be regarded and enjoyed; and that this feeling is characteristic of the æsthetic judgment proper. When the artist passes from pure sensations to emotions aroused by means of sensations, he uses natural forms which, in themselves,{25} are calculated to move our emotions, and he presents these in such a manner that the forms themselves generate in us emotional states, based upon the fundamental necessities of our physical and physiological nature. The artist’s attitude to natural form is, therefore, infinitely various according to the emotions he wishes to arouse. He may require for his purpose the most complete representation of a figure, he may be intensely realistic, provided that his presentment, in spite of its closeness to natural appearance, disengages clearly for us the appropriate emotional elements. Or he may give us the merest suggestion of natural forms, and rely almost entirely upon the force and intensity of the emotional elements involved in his presentment. We may, then, dispense once for all with the idea of likeness to Nature, of correctness or incorrectness as a test, and consider only whether the emotional elements inherent in natural form are adequately discovered, unless, indeed, the emotional idea depends at any point upon likeness, or completeness of representation. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "An Essay in Aesthetics" Description An account of the resource An essay by Roger Fry on form and emotion in aesthetics. It was originally published in the April 1909 issue of "The New Quarterly," a serial published by the secretary to the first Post-Impressionist exhibition and fellow Bloomsbury Group member, Desmond MacCarthy. The essay was later published in a collection of Fry's essays titled "Vision and Design". Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roger Fry Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Hathi Trust https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951p00953927n&view=1up&seq=1 Type The nature or genre of the resource Essay Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Hathi Trust https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951p00953927n&view=1up&seq=1 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1909 April Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rosemary Frehe Fry https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/798ad01042f14f65736151ab913698e6.jpg 604ab6d92952551a84b753b74ef213a6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix A: Aesthetic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the aesthetic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rosie Frehe and Grace Watkins Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data painting Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Abstract Painting, ca. 1914 Description An account of the resource A painting by British artist Vanessa Bell titled "Abstract Painting," dated ca. 1914. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vanessa Bell Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived The Tate https://www.tate.org.uk/research/publications/in-focus/abstract-painting-vanessa-bell/test-for-chrome-yellow Type The nature or genre of the resource artwork Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Tate https://www.tate.org.uk/research/publications/in-focus/abstract-painting-vanessa-bell/test-for-chrome-yellow Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource ca. 1914 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rosemary Frehe https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/79d3ad83befc474de70a7760c7982a93.jpg 71bb902833e9dc4db9f160be175e7747 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/a20fa32aed5575969c7b2b4e0decb228.jpg f9a66540463645134f224ecc783f02b3 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/cbd8ad938d6d8f635a1e916ef386de7e.jpg 5356457e64bb8f5984c9615eb916129a https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/ffebbb02b1e5ab9d8581ab2c8361bd07.jpg 9c73f786a6143f18584294d7ae97938c https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/5501568c081f6fc047f3595954bb6662.jpg 958a2daae29c9d224610aaf975e0b6fa https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/e7e10388487b97f19b5e42c315d1408d.jpg 916ce16baea3ff1ba7a1150649578a42 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/bcfb5e4f167073a921f36120dd610afe.jpg fbed7a9bb54cf67671059da2acec0092 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/84861f63bad4a91ea9a518d38ce43c0b.jpg 63e7607126bc26790605e2ff19b0f6d5 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/bd846bedb4d2a11c6512d160d3183af2.jpg a433702c39332ab74d228b6ff604a7cc Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix C: Economic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the economic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rebecca Miller and Victoria O'Dea Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Book Text Any textual data included in the document CHAPTER II. CAPE CORNWALL TO GODREVY HEAD. Haven, bears, Mib, N. E., distanty.W. we Bearings from Cape Cornwall.–St. Ann's Light, Milford Haven, bears N.E. by N. northerly, distant ninety-five miles. Saltee's Lightship, N. & E., distant one hundred and twenty miles and a half. Cork Harbour, N N.W. westerly, one hundred and forty miles. Lundy Island Lighthouse, N.E. E. easterly, seventy-three miles. Trevose Head, E.N.E., thirty-six miles. The Smalls Light, N.N.E. northerly, ninety-six miles. Dangers between Cape Cornwall and Battery Point, W. side of St. Ives Bay.—The coast trends N.E. to Pendeen Point, two miles and a half from Cape Cornwall, and is much indented, the cliffs varying from 2oft. to 100ft. On Pendeen Point, which juts out like Castle Treryn, there is a watch-house. Three rocks lie off this point, called The Wra, or Three Stone Oar. They are always above water and are steep-to. Between Cape Cornwall and these rocks there is Manver Rock, dry at half ebb, two-thirds of a cable from Botallack Head. Cokle Marney Rock is dry at half ebb, and lies one cable in a northerly direction from Botallack Head. N.W. of Pendeen Point are the Skinvynecks, distant one cable and a half. The two inner ones dry at one-third ebb, and the outer one is awash at low-water. The Three Stone Oar Rocks are one-third of a mile N.E. of the watch-hill, Pendeen Point, and are only just above ordinary spring tides. Avarrack Rock, lying S.W. by W. three-quarters of a mile from the Three Stone Oar Rocks, is dry at half ebb. There is a cove one mile E. of Pendeen Point, with a coast- guard station and rocket apparatus. Off the cove, N.E., at two cables from the shore, lie the Mozen Rocks, which dry at three-quarters ebb. Gurnard Head is three miles E. of Pendeen Cove, off which lie several detached rocks. The Ebal is the largest of them, and is covered at high-water springs. It is one cable from the shore. Gurnard Head is a singularly striking jagged headland, 185ft. high. There is a deeply-recessed cove on its E. side. From this headland to Carn Naun Point, or Trefalgen Point, is about two miles and a half, with several coves and rocks in between, all of which can be cleared by keeping half a mile off the shore, none of the dangers lying out farther than two cables and a half. From Carn Naun, or Trefalgen Point, the coast bears E. by S. } S. to Battery or St. Ives Point, distant two miles and a half. The Caraks lie half a mile W. of Carn Naun, and are two cables off shore. The highest part is 25ft. above high-water. The rest of the rocks uncover at the last quarter ebb. The land behind Carn Naun is high and rugged. St. Ives Bay lies between Battery or St. Ives Point and Godrevy Head, and is three miles and a half across from E. to W., and is two iniles deep. Battery Point is 104ft. high, with a pilot watch-house and a three-gun battery on it. As the coast recedes little of St. Ives can be seen until quite round the point, which is fairly steep-to. When well to the eastward of this point the town will appear rising up the side of the hill, with Tregenna Castle on a hill to the S. of the town, while on a hill further S. is Knill's Monument (an obelisk), behind which will be seen Trecroben Hill (590ft.). The bay is entirely open to northerly winds, the best anchorage being in eight or nine fathoms stiff clay, with Battery Point bearing N.W. 1 W., and Knill's Monument open E. of a farm bearing S.W. · W. But this is an impossible anchorage with N. or even W. winds, and is not very comfortable with a strong E. one. As a matter of fact, St. Ives is not a place which offers any shelter except with off-shore winds. The harbour dries nearly 6ft. above low-water springs. There is 14ft. at high-water springs and 8ft. at neaps. At the pier-head there is 20ft. at high-water. A stone pier, 166yds. long, was built in 1770, and an addition of rooyds. has since been added. There is a breakwater, 200yds. long, but the outer end of piles and rubbish have been destroyed by gales to the extent of 140ft., and the ruins of it form a half-tide reef, called Fisherman's Reef. The bottom of the harbour is sand covered with shingle. The fishing-boats moor to iron posts fixed above high-water-mark for bow-posts, and to two buoys for stern-fasts. They often come adrift owing to the heavy ground swell. It will at once be seen that this is no place for a yacht. Light.—On the inner pier a fixed light is shown at the height of 28ft. above high-water, showing red through an arc of 6odeg. between the bearings of S. 17deg. W. and S. 83deg. W., cover- ing the breakwater; and white S. of the red sector, where there is roft. or more at the pier-head, and green when there is less than Toft. Visible nine miles. There is an old light-tower standing inshore of this light, but it is disused. Directions.-St. Ives is easy to enter as regards absence of dangers other than those arising from the sea. It goes without saying that with on-shore gales it had better be avoided. Mer- ran Rock, lying between Battery Point and the outer pier, covers when there is a depth of 12ft. in the harbour. Keep Knill's Monument open E. of the outer pier or breakwater and round up to the stone pier, to which it will be well to make fast as far in as possible if there is room, otherwise a vessel must use legs unless she can take the ground easily. The W. pier is constructing, meanwhile two red lights are shown on it vertically. Tides. - It is high-water, full and change, at 4hr. 44min. local time, or 5hr. 6min. Greenwich time. Springs rise 21ft.; neaps, 15ft. Hayle Estuary.-At the head, or S., of St. Ives Bay lies the entrance to Hayle Creek, the outlet of several small streams. As the whole isthmus across to Marazion on Mounts Bay is not more than five miles there is not much room for a large river. The whole coast from Carbis Bay to Godrevy Head is bordered by wide sands. A channel is kept open to allow of vessels drawing 14ft. to enter at high-water by sluicing the estuary from reservoirs, and a half-tide dyke, 643yds. long, extends from Chapel Anjou Point on the W. side of the entrance, on which are five perches or warping posts, and two black buoys mark the continuation of the sand bank seaward. Square red buoys, with rings for warping, mark the E. side. The outer red buoy is a can buoy. The bar, marked by a black nun buoy, has a depth of 2oft. at high-water springs, and 14ft. high-water neaps, and is dry at low-water ; but vessels drawing 6ft. can get up as far as Lelant at three-quarters flood. Tide Lights.-On the W. side, at Chapel Anjou Point, two fixed white lights are shown when there is 12ft. on the bar. The high light is painted red and stands on three legs. The low lighthouse is placed on four legs and painted black. They are 92yds. apart, and are 8ift. and 59ft. above high-water. The lights are visible six miles. The lights are shifted as the bar changes. Lelant Church is a good mark to steer for over the W. point of Hayle entrance until the bar buoy is seen. At Lelant Quay, opposite Hayle on the W. side, a red light is shown. The coast from Hayle Bar Buoy is bordered with sand, stretching out nearly a quarter of a mile from the shore as far as Godrevy Head. Towans, or sand hills, fringe the coast as far as Gwythian, where the shore becomes steep, with rocks showing through the sand. Bassack Rock lies S.W. by S. of Godrevy Island, four cables, from the shore. It dries at two-thirds ebb. Lelant Church open of Black Cliff, S.W., clears it to the N.W. Godrevy Head is 228ft. high, and is bold, but with ledges extending off it one cable and a half. Godrevy Island lies off the head. It is Soft. high, with an islet off its N.W. side. The S.E. side is foul with rocks, drying at half ebb. On the S.W. is a reef awash at low-water, half- a-cable off, called Shore Lanner. There is a channel, with 6ft. low-water, one cable wide, between the island and the head. Godrevy Lighthouse.-In an octagonal tower, 86ft. high, is shown a flashing white light from a height of 120ft. above high-water, giving a fash every rosec., visible fifteen miles. To point out The Stones, a fixed red light is shown from the same tower, 27ft. below the flashing light. The red light is only visible between the bearings of S. by E. & E. to S.E. E. Fog-signal.-- A bell is sounded every 5sec. The Stones.—These dangers lie one mile and a tenth from Godrevy Lighthouse, bearing N.W. } N. Hevah Rock is the outermost of these rocks, and uncovers at low-water springs, and the rocky bank is one cable and a half in extent to the three-fathoms depth. Between it and the eastern group of rocks, extending nearly half a mile, is a deep-water channel, with a strong tide setting through it. The eastern rocks, which show at low-water, are four, uncovering from one-third to three- quarters ebb. A black buoy with staff and ball is moored in ten fathoms, a quarter of a mile N.E. of the Hevah Rock, but it is often washed away. Clearing Marks.-Gurnard Head, open of Carn Naun, W. by S., leads one-third of a mile N. of The Stones. Gwinear Church (behind Gwythian) in line with the E. side of Godrevy Island, S. & W., leads E. of The Stones ; and Gwinear Church, in line with the old engine chimney, bearing S. by E. & E., leads to the W. of them. The Sound between The Stones and Godrevy Island is nearly half-a-mile wide, with four fathoms and three quarters depth. Trecobben Hill (590ft.) between Carrack Gladdon Farm and Fishery Beacon House, bearing S.W. \ W., leads through. Remarks on the appearance of the coast and objects of interest visible from the sea, or worth visiting from St. Ives, between Cape Cornwall and Godrevy Head. — The coast is very rugged and forbidding-looking after Cape Cornwall is passed. The celebrated Botallack mine lies just beyond the Cape. This mine goes down to the depth of 1050ft., and some of its galleries extend 12ooſt. or more under the sea. The roar of the waves is said to be heard distinctly down below when the Atlantic is tumbling home before a howling N.W. or W. gale. The Prince of Wales visited this mine with the Princess when he took his bride to make the acquaintance of her new Duchy. Behind Botallack, St. Just, in Penarth, is seen. The church is very interesting, with a tomb to one Silus, said to date from the sixth century. There is some quaint Celtic tracery, and the columns have unique capitals. In the village there is what is called a British amphitheatre, and several ancient prehistoric monuments are in the neighbourhood. It was St. Just who behaved so badly to St. Keverne when he dined with him. He stole his spoons. St. Keverne did not actually know this, but he knew “St. Joost.” So after dinner he said he would see him home part of the way, anyhow. It was only a walk of about thirty miles, but Cornish saints thought nothing of that. On the way he picked up some stones ; they did not weigh more than half-a-ton or so each. He was able to conceal these about his person, as saints did not wear trousers, only loose frocks. When they reached Breage, nearly half-way to St. Just, St. Keverne said he must be going back, but would like to take his spoons with him if St. Just did not mind. St. Just did mind, however, and was very indignant. However, St. Keverne, after listening politely for a short time, produced his stones, with which he proceeded to bombard the person of his saintly brother, whereupon St. Just dropped the spoons and ran. The stones are there at Tremen Keverne, near Breage, to this day, and there are no others like them, except at Crousa- down, where St. Keverne picked them up. So there is no doubt about the story. Sailing E. we see Pendeen Point. Behind it is a new church built in imitation of the cathedral of Iona, at the expense of Mr. Aitken, the vicar. Pendeen House dates from the seventeenth century, and there is an ancient cave-dwelling near it. Lanyon Cromlech, or the Giant's Quoit, lies inland, from the centre of the bay, between Pendeen Point and Gurnard Head, about two miles as the crow flies. The upper slab is 18ft. long by 8ft. broad, and three stones about 5ft. high sup- port it. There is another cromlech close by on Lanyon Farm; and the Men-an-Tol, or Holed Stone, with the Men Scryfa, or stone inscribed with the words “Rialobran Cunova Fil” encised on it, are a few yards farther on. These prehistoric remains precisely resenible the menhirs and dolmens of Brittany, and were evidently erected by the same or kindred people. Conspicuous behind the rugged headland of Gurnard is Mulfra Quoit, a high hill crowned by a ruined cromlech, from which there is a magnificent view over Mounts Bay and the Bristol Channel. • The picturesque village of Zennor lies below, with its fishing. cove and old church. Behind Carn Naun the hills rise steeply, and the scenery is wild – Zennor lying in a deep valley shut out from the rest of the world by rugged steeps and moorland. The contrast between the N. and S. coasts is very conspicuous when ashore. All here is bleak and barren, whereas at Gulval, only six miles away, tropical plants grow in the open air. St. Ives is built on the steep slopes of hills, to its considerable discomfort sometimes after heavy rains, as the water pours down through the steep streets, flooding the shops and houses. The rains of December, 1894, were remarkable for the destruction they caused. The old name of the town was Porth-la, from the name of an Irish virgin who travelled with St. Piran when he came over as a missionary in 460. Here she died and was buried. It is curious to note how in the fourth and fifth centuries everybody was busy converting some one else. The Bretons say the Welsh or British saints came over and converted them; the Cornishmen say Irish saints converted them; the Irish say that they were converted by the Scotch ; and the Scotch by the Gauls. But they were all doing it about the same time, and no one seems to have thought of converting their own people. However, St. la gave her name to St. Ives. The town suffered during the Cornish revolt in 1549, when so much landed property changed hands, passing from the old families into the possession of the new courriers ; and again in the civil wars of Charles I. The population is 6445, and there is a very comfortable hotel, Tregenna Castle, standing in beautiful grounds. The railway station is the terminus of the branch line of the Great Western Railway from St. Erth. The quay is very busy in the pilchard season, from July to October, and the fishing-luggers are smart, handsome craft. They have to moor stoutly in the harbour owing to the scour of the sea in westerly and northerly gales. The church is a fifteenth-century building with a Norman font, and the bones of St. la-so they say. Battery Point is at the end of what is called the island. Boat-building is carried on here and at Hayle ; but the chief support of the place is the pilchard fishery, the fish being exported to Italy. The monument which has been referred to as a sea-mark is a granite pyramid erected by John Knill, collector of customs, in 1782, at St. Ives, in memory of himself. He died in 1791, and established a quinquennial festival to his own memory. By his will he left property to provide for the following items of expenditure: £10 for a dinner for the mayor, the vicar, and the collector of customs, who may each invite three guests; £5 to be divided among ten little girls, born in the borough, who are to dance round his grave ; £ I to the fiddler to play to the girls ; £2 to two widows who are 10 act as chaperons ; £i for ribbons ; £i for an account book and a marriage- portion for a St. Ives woman selected for good conduct; £5 as a prize for knitting nets; £5 for curing pilchards ; and 65 to two “follower boys." The date of the festival is July 25. At Carbis Bay there is a watering-place, and it is becoming a favourite bathing-place. Lelant is an old fishing village, and a great resort of the pilchard boats. It has a quay, and might be a good place to lay up small yachts; it is opposite Hayle. At Hayle there is a fair amount of foreign and coasting trade. The wharves accommodate a good inany vessels. There are building slips and machinery works, and there is a steam tug to assist vessels in and out. If only there were a little more water always in the river Hayle would be a convenient shelter to stop at in coasting up the Bristol Channel. The coast is bordered by sand hills, some rooft. high, between Phillack, on the E. side of Hayle estuary, and Gwythian, which is the last village before Godrevy Head is reached. Inland the country rises to high hills, lying between Cam- borne, Penrhyn, and Helston, but the view offers nothing of a remarkable nature. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Primary text: Sailing Tours: The Yachtsman's Guide to the Cruising Waters of the English Coast: Chapter 2 Description An account of the resource Manual describing the boating routes along the coast of England and Scotland published in 1895. Chapter 2 describes the journey around Cornwall and the dangers of sailing by Godrevy Island, including a description of the function of the lighthouse. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Frank Cowper Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hn5w39&view=1up&seq=10&skin=2021 Type The nature or genre of the resource ebook Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Hathi Trust Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6 December 2021 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rebecca Miller & Tori O'Dea https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/acd08609b3fd9ea148cdb4e52a2f8170.jpg 06821786ed99e6b2979427e5386d588c https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/7389458bf0bdf5c7ee9fc233a33e6993.jpg 3f30ca3bbcec51cce7e935d794a20f9b https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/5c60875ddad1c7b8fc8f2be0a0384f88.jpg cc550d96a3c44365fb232be8ec765cd1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix C: Economic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the economic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rebecca Miller and Victoria O'Dea Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Book Text Any textual data included in the document THE MANAGEMENT OF SERVANTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. In the course of writing a former work, “Manners and Tone of Good Society," it was found that the duties of servants, or rather the manner in which those duties were performed, came prominently for- ward, and greatly influenced the smooth working of the domestic machinery, and that without the con- stant co-operation of well-trained servants, domestic machinery is completely thrown out of gear, and the best bred of hostesses placed at a disadvantage. The idea was thus conceived of writing the present work to serve as an auxiliary or aid to those masters and mistresses whose servants are either inexperienced or indifferently trained. To demonstrate the method, the manner, the style, in which things should be done, has been the object in view throughout these pages. The behaviour and bearing of servants in the performance of their duties have also been duly considered, being essential points in their training An agreeable chatty style of writing is as pleasant to read, as it is facile to write, and carries both reader and author over the ground almost with a bound, but this style has its drawbacks in a book of rules for frequent reference, as the present work purports to be. To envelop a rule, or a chapter of rules, in a cloud of pleasantries, sparkling or otherwise, as the capacity of the author may de- termine, sprinkled and seasoned with many apt quotations from well-known literary lights, scarcely tends to elucidate a particular subject or rule, or to enlighten the reader in following any direct method. Bewilderment, and a vague uncertainty as to thơ author's meaning, are likely to be the result of many dissertations and deviations from the main point. Therefore, in these pages, the main point has been strictly kept in view, all inclination to be other than tedious has been restrained, and simplicity of diction in conveying the most intricate of instructions has been steadily adhered to. This didactic and un- relieved mode of handling the subject, necessarily engendered much tautology and not a little repetition, but as the mainspring of instruction is repetition, repetition in works of this description becomes a welcome feature. This work is especially written for the use of masters and mistresses, to enable them to instruct their servants as to the correct method in which every duty should be performed ; and to give this instruction without hesitation or doubt as to how things should be done, with but little or no trouble to themselves. The method of waiting at table, and every branch of domestic service, in force in the households of the upper classes of society, both on large and small scales, from the stately mansion to the bijou resi- dence, has been fully gone into and explained. Thus every class of master and mistress will find the present volume applicable to their servants, and to their surroundings, and may confidently and unhesitatingly follow its lead. The technical and manual portions of this work have been gathered from experienced and competent servants, whose long service in families of position is sufficient guarantee as to the class of information supplied by them; and it is owing to this valuable assistance that the writer is enabled to place before the public the most comprehensive details of domestic service. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Primary Source: The Management of Servants: A Practical Guide to the Routine of Domestic Service, Chapter 1: Introduction Description An account of the resource Introduction to the manual for households employing domestic servants. Entire manual contains further reading chapters on categories such as "Households: Their Various Scales," "Engaging and Dismissing Servants," and "Opening the Door, and Announcing Visitors" Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Member of the aristocracy Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31175008555065&view=1up&seq=1&skin=2021 Type The nature or genre of the resource ebook Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Hathi Trust Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6 December 2021 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rebecca Miller & Tori O'Dea https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/cc499143ebd6ce33a76530b649184dd8.jpg c4b15db0c88fc44ca028121b3bc560c8 https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/04229ba97e468b8a105e8a2c547a1f4a.jpg dc5e0f013e6484a75c90e7c166f886d2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix C: Economic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the economic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rebecca Miller and Victoria O'Dea Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Paper Text Any textual data included in the document A parliamentary bill "to prevent mischievous practices" with drift-net when fishing for pilchards. This bill restricts the use of drift-nets from June-November with fines enforced if fishers are caught using the nets during that time. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "Reasons Humbly Proposed" Description An account of the resource A measure presented in Parliament in 1680 opposing a bill that restricted the use of drift-nets in coastal fishing. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anonymous Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived The Huntington Library Type The nature or genre of the resource Parliamentary Bill Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2240854054/pageLevelImage/133C3CE2D8C64014PQ/1?accountid=12163&amp;imgSeq=1">ProQuest</a> Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 4 December 2021 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rebecca Miller & Tori O'Dea Subject The topic of the resource Fishing Economy fishing https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/df5ed20083c277a372ae62a9c8909245.jpg 11a96ffa66a7bb5b3e1bb931e2f93aa5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix C: Economic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the economic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rebecca Miller and Victoria O'Dea Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cornish Fishermen Description An account of the resource A photograph of local fishermen in Sennen Cove, Cornwall. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael John Ireland Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46mz6g.9">"Tourism, Kinship, and Social Change in Sennen Cove, Cornwall"</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Photograph Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Amsterdam University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 4 December 2021 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rebecca Miller & Tori O'Dea Subject The topic of the resource Fishing Economy Cornwall fishing https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/c2a45e09f3b54c5bffc49b7bf326bd5b.jpg 9d918aa8bf85b745d287f7c3dbc42831 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix C: Economic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the economic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rebecca Miller and Victoria O'Dea Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Great Western Railway Advertisement Description An account of the resource An advertising campaign for the Great Western Railway showcasing the "Cornish Riviera" from circa 1925. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Great Western Railway Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <a href="https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20170405185524/http://www.ingenious.org.uk/See/?s=S2&amp;target=ctx&amp;DCID=10306948">The National Archives</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Advertisement Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The National Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6 December 2021 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rebecca Miller & Tori O'Dea Subject The topic of the resource Railways Railways https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/e788ab4ed6d6110161779e7fae0fb96a.jpg 1b5e3742f767693b6afc3ed4c350848c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix C: Economic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the economic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rebecca Miller and Victoria O'Dea Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Book Jacket Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown" Description An account of the resource The original cover of "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown," which was designed by Vanessa Bell. Originally published by the Hogarth Press in 1924. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vanessa Bell Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <a href="https://mantex.co.uk/virginia-woolf-mr-bennett-and-mrs-brown/">Mantex Information Design</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Cover Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6 December 2021 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rebecca Miller & Tori O'Dea Subject The topic of the resource Economics Book Cover Vanessa Bell https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/c38c83d12629e5c654b98970acc00546.jpg 4126de0c2663666d530f50109821bfd7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix C: Economic Context Description An account of the resource Information on the economic context for To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rebecca Miller and Victoria O'Dea Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Newspaper Article Text Any textual data included in the document Servants are not to be lightly treated. They constitule an important element in the life of the nation. They have a question all to themselves. Their grievances are manifold, far in excess of those possessed by their employers; and they seem determined to make the supply less than the demand, whereby those who stand and wait improve the manners and morals of their patrons, and at the same time better their own position in etv. "They've take very little care and give but trifling attention to the master of the house. The butler considers himself the real master of the house. Mrs. Dumply, the housekeeper, claims the mistress herself as her victim, and is alwavs pleased to give the master the comfort of a smile when she passes him. It is the same in smaller houses, where butlers and housekeepers are not a necessity. A cook and two housemaids are quite sufficient to break the heart and nerves of the hardest-hearted mistress. They need only say what they think. Dr. Johnson, that tyrant of the intellectual world of his day, was prepared to admit that each of us has a perfect right to his own thoughts, though not always to the expression of them. Has the union been formed to confute Dr. Johnson ? The Poet, or the master of the house, in the touching episode I am about to relate, lived in a cottage in the country, with his newly wedded wife, and they could afford only one servant. As the Poet was a greal admirer of Dr. Johnson, he said it all depends on the strength of character of the master of the house whether a servant shall be allowed to express her thoughts or not. We shall see. Maria Jane must have been much nearer forty than thirty when her cab brought her to the door where the Poet lived. Her last mistress had said that she was an excellent cook, and altogether a most worthy person. Maria herself had explained that she longed for a small and quiet household where she might settle down, presumably for the rest of her life. Besides, she wanted to be alone in the kitchen. Fellow-servants annoyed her. They had generally such bad tongues, and made themselves so disagreeable. Maria Jane arrived wreathed in smiles, with cheeks like crab-apples; hair somewhat scanty ; clean; apparently not given to talk. With a promptitude which bespoke an energetic and determined character, she at once addressed herself to the preparation of a more than usually piquant lunch. Stewed mushrooms on toast, she said, was a specialty of hers, which had been greatly appreciated in every house where she had served. Indeed, after once tasting her stewed mushrooms on toast (this with a simper) she could hardly get them to allow her to cook anything else. She would follow that up, she thought, with veal cutlets, done a la Maria, another specialty. When the Poet was told what a jewel they had discovered in Maria, he smiled indulgently, knowing how in the feminine breast, as regards servants, hope springs eternal. Never will the Poet forget that lunch, or the expression on the face of the lady who sat opposite to,him. It was indescribable. The toast seemed to have soaked for a week in ketchup that had lost long since the freshness of its youth. After which it must have been treated liberally to butter, and then covered with small buttons of leather. Not to discourage Maria, they threw the greater part of it into the fire, and left what remained for her own consumption. Veal cutlets have nothing intrinsically bad about them. Cooked in an ordinarily healthy manner, they are quite eatable. But let no one ever attempt to eat veal cutlets a la Maria. Everything in that woman's hands, turned to leather, which in this instance she hid in bread crumbs and eggs about an inch thick. The Poet thought it was the shortest lunch to which he had ever sat down. Maria was eager to know if she had given satisfaction, and when, in somewhat halting accents, she was told that the veal was a trifle tough, a scowl came over her features that gave the Poet a distinct misgiving. By some happy accident, they were dining out that night, and Maria ceased to interest them. But when morning came, so did Maria. The Poet happened to be in his dressing-room, in the delicate act of shaving, when the voice of Maria arrested him. "If anyone," said Maria, in a very loud voice, "has anything to say against my cooking, let him come out like a man and say it to my face." " But, Maria," he heard a gentle voice reply, "no one has said a word against your cooking behind your back." That was quite true; looks were sufficient. "If," said Maria, "anyone has a word to say against my cooking, don't let him think I take his word for it. Bring a jury of experts, people which know good cooking from bad, and by them I will be judged. But not by him!" After this vigorous protest, Maria retired to the kitchen. She had her revenge in the bacon and eggs. The bacon was fully a quarter of an inch thick, and the eggs had all got together and looked like a hard and baked omelette. Let us pass over quickly a day of discomfort and come to the second morning of Maria's stay. When she brought in the matutinal cup of tea, she stood over the Poet and shook with white rage. "Don't give me any more of your insolence," she said, "or I'll call a constable! I was married to a soldier which is dead, and I know what justice is. You can't take a person's character away and not pay for it. You may find some which will put up with your insolence, but not me. My sister Elizabeth and myself are quite able to look after ourselves, and we won't be put upon by such as you." She flounced out of the room, and closed the door behind her with a crash. They heard her muttering to herself as she moved up and down the corridor. Finally she got a broom, and while pretending to sweep, knocked it viciously against the door. After a lull, she again knocked, and entered with some letters on a tray. "Maria," said the Poet calmly, and hoping to soothe her, " what is the matter ? " " Don't speak to me, you insulting villain!" she said; "I am neither a Jew nor a German. There is a fountain of justice in this country, and there I will go, but nowhere else. We are not in Germany. Don't lay your hand on me My husband was in the Army, and though he's dead I know what Justice is." " Maria," said the Poet, " leave the house at once and take a week's salary." " I will leave the house," she said; " but only with a month's salary in my pocket. There is a fountain of justice in this country, and I am neither a Jew nor a Gentile." " Maria," said the Poet, "You are either drunk or mad. Go! ' "I,am willing to stay and work out my month," said Maria. " Heaven forbid! " said the Poet. So she got her month's wage for two days' work. If she follows up this plan of campaign she will soon be rich, and ought to be given a high place in the new Union of Domestic Servants. Her experiences will be invaluable from a fighting point of view, and she may yet lead the new Amazons to battle. Certainly if they all possess the tenacity of purpose, proud self-confidence, and high moral principle of Maria Jane, it will soon no longer be possible for any man to boast of himself as master of the house. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "Domestic Tyrants" Description An account of the resource A newspaper article parodying the relationship between domestic workers and their employers, discusses how servants were demanding higher pay for their work. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource The London Illustrated News Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/HN3100199703/ILN?u=loyolau&sid=bookmark-ILN&xid=40d8e879 Type The nature or genre of the resource Newspaper Article Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Gale Primary Sources Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6 December 2021 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rebecca Miller & Tori O'Dea Subject The topic of the resource Domestic Servants https://ctsdh.org/ENGL433/files/original/839a0f0811da44b7456a6a4bcfe028ce.pdf 8147e5cad09d74a8a2bc99c25243a9c1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Appendix B: Environmental Context Description An account of the resource Information on environmental issues in To the Lighthouse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived various Type The nature or genre of the resource Text and still image Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available various Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pamela Caughie Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document Journal of the Ropa I Societp of Arts. No. 3,710. VOL. LXXII. FRIDAY , DECEMBER 28, 1923. All communications for the Society should be addressed to the Secretary , John Street , Adelphi , W.C. (2^ NOTICES. NEXT WEEK. Wednesday, January 2nd, at 3 p.m. (Mann Juvenile Lecture.) Dr. William Arthur Bone, F.R.S., Professor of Chemical Technology, Imperial College of Science and Technology, " Fire and Explosions." (Lecture I.) The lecture will be fully illus- trated with experiments. Special tickets are required for this course and for the Mann Juvenile Lecture by Mrs. Julia W. Henshaw, F.R.G.S., Croix de Guerre, entitled ' ' Among the Selkirk Mountains of Canada (with ice-axe and camera)," to be delivered on Wednesday, January 16th, at 3 p.m. A few tickets for both courses are still left, and these will be issued to Fellows who apply for them at once. COMPETITION OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS. Particulars of the Competition of Industrial Designs to be held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in June, 1924, can now be obtained on application to the Secretary, Royal Society of Arts. Over £1,000 will be offered in Travelling Scholarships and Money Prizes in the various sections, and the Society's Diploma will be conferred on any candidate whose work reaches a very high standard of artistic ability and shows practical knowledge of the materials and processes of his trade. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING. Wednesday, December 5th, 1923. Professor C. A. Seward, Sc.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge, in the Chair. The Chairman said that it was his great privilege to introduce to the Society the Director of Kew, who would speak about the many activities of the Royal Gardens. Dr. Hill had not presided for many years over the destinies of Kew as Director, but he had been associated with the Gardens for a long time past in another capacity. Before he went to Kew he was at Cambridge, and there the speaker had had the opportunity of being with him in the same Departments of that University. He left a School mostly concerned with pure science for an institution which was concerned with both pure and applied science - with pure science to the greater degree, although, of course, it was difficult to draw the line between the two. He had pleasure in calling upon Dr. Hill to read his paper. The paper read was : - THE WORK OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, KEW. by Arthur William Mill, M.A., Sc.D., F.Jti.S., -b.b.S., Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Before attempting to give you some account of the work of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, I feel it is essential to a proper understanding of the functions of Kew to consider for a few minutes the early history of the Gardens, how they came into being, and how their development as the Headquarters of Botanical Enterprise for the British Empire gradually materialised. As with so many of our National Institu- tions, Kew, as we know it to-day, was not evolved in any deliberate manner, or as the result of some carefully conceived plan in the brain of any far-seeing Empire builder. Its origin was due to the interest in horticulture of that eminent lady, Princess Augusta of Saxe -Gotha, widow of Frederick, Prince of Wales, who in 1760, under the guidance of the Earl of Bute, started a Botanic Garden of some nine acres in the vicinity of Kew House. Frederick himself would appear to have been interested in gardening pursuits, for after his acquisition of Kew House on a long lease from the Capel family in 1 7 30, he commenced a fresh arrange- ment of the pleasure grounds, and made additional plantations under the direction of the celebrated Kent. It was after Frederick's death in 1751 that Princess Augusta gave to Kew Gardens 87 This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 88 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December i8th, ms. the definitely scientific character they have ever since maintained. The date 1760 may be accepted as the commencement of the Botanic Garden, as it was towards the close of the year 1759 that William Aiton, who had been a pupil of the famous Philip Miller at the Chelsea Physic Garden, was engaged by the Dowager Princess of Wales to establish at Kew a Botanic, or, as it was then termed, a Physic garden. Princess Augusta died in 1772, but during the last twelve years of her life she was assisted in her botanical pursuits by John Stuart, third Earl of Bute, who was keenly interested in botany. This science, apart from his brief political career, was the principal occupation of his life, and his interest in botany has scarcely received the appreciation it deserved. It should, how- ever, be borne in grateful remembrance that he took a very active part in developing the botanical side of Kew. Some of the trees planted under his direction still exist, notably the fine Maidenhair tree (Ginkgo) and a Diospyros near the site of the Temple of the Sun, which among others were probably brought from the garden of the Duke of Argyle near Hounslow in 1762. That the collection of plants at Kew in these early days was a remarkable one is shown by Sir John Hill's Hortus Kewensis , published in the year 1758, which was an octavo volume of 458 pages forming a catalogue of the plants cultivated in the garden of Her Royal Highness the Dowager Princess of Wales at Kew. This catalogue enumerates 3,400 species, 488 being hardy trees and shrubs and 200 tender shrubby plants ; while in 1770 Sir John speaks of Kew as " that garden where every tree that has been seen in Europe is at hand." After the death of Princess Augusta, George III. purchased the freehold of Kew House and grounds from the Dowager Countess of Essex, and amalgamated them with the gardens of Richmond Palace, which had been the residence of George II. and Queen Caroline. Love Lane, which separated the two properties, was the old roadway from Richmond to Brentford Ferry, and the present Kew Road is its successor. The original Love Lane is still preserved in the Holly Walk in the Gardens, but though George III. was empowered to close the lane in 1765, it seems doubtful whether the two Royal Gardens were really united until about the year 1802. Many of the trees still at Kew, in the part which was formerly Richmond Gardens, were planted under the direction of Queen Caroline. With the acquisition by George III. of the two Royal Gardens and the appoint- ment of Sir Joseph Banks as Botanical Adviser, or in effect " Director " of the Royal Gardens, in place of Lord Bute, the " Golden Age " of Kew may well be said to have commenced. The King maintained the botanical character of Kew with even greater energy than did his Mother, and supported with keen interest the various botanical activities initiated by Sir Joseph Banks, which have resulted in Kew occupying the position it holds to-day in relation to botanical enter- prise throughout the Empire. To Sir Joseph was due that praetice, which has yielded such fruitful results, of sending out collectors to various parts of the British Empire and to other countries, which, after lapsing and being revived by Sir William Hooker, has in recent times been continued by the leading nurserymen and by private enterprise. In the year 1772, Sir Joseph Banks, being then President of the Royal Society, addressed a memorandum to the King with reference to sending Francis Masson, an under-gardener at Kew, to collect seeds and living plants at the Cape of Good Hope " for the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew." Masson made remarkably fine collections, and sent home over 400 species of living plants. At least one of his plants, the interesting Cycad E ncephalartos longifolius , still exists in the Palm House, while among others were Cineraria cruenta , the parent of our garden Cinerarias, and the wild Cape Pelargoniums, from which have been evolved our garden " Geraniums." From the long list of Kew Collectors one or two names deserve special mention. Among them, that of David Nelson, who was Assistant Botanist on Captain Cook's third voyage, and subsequently accompanied Captain Bligh on the ill-fated voyage of the " Bounty." The genus Eucalyptus was founded by L'Heritier - the French Botanist who came to England 1786-87, and studied the Kew collections - on a species (E.obliqua), which was found by Nelson in Tasmania. Then there is Archibald Menzies, who accompanied Captain Vancouver (1791-95), and brought home seeds of the Chilian Monkey Puzzle (Araucaria imbricóla), which Sir Joseph This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 89 Banks planted, some at his own place at Spring Grove, Isleworth, and the others at Kew. It is a pity that Sir Joseph's name is not still commemorated by the retention of the early name " Sir Joseph Banks' Pine," by which it was first known. Menzies also discovered Sequoia sempervirens , the Cali- f orni an Red Wood. I must also refer to Christopher Smith, who went with Bligh on his second successful voyage to convey the Bread fruit to the West Indies, and afterwards collected in India ; Peter Good, who was in Calcutta and Australia ; George Caley, who was appointed by Sir Joseph as botanical collector in New South Wales ; William Ker, who was sent to collect in China ; Alan Cunningham, who travelled as a collector for Kew, in Brazil, The Cape and Australia, and David Lockhart, who was the only survivor of the scientific staff of Captain Tuckey's Congo Expedition of 1816. These are some of the most famous of the earliest of the Kew Collectors. Three of these same men also deserve further mention, namely, William Ker, who in 1812 was appointed Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Garden, Ceylon, founded in 1810 ; George Caley, who was Super- intendent of the Botanic Garden, St. Vincent, from 1816 to 1822 - the earliest of our Tropical Gardens founded in 1765 - and David Lockhart, who was apparently the first Superintendent of the Botanic Garden in Trinidad, where a Garden was founded in 1817. Thus began that long and valuable connection, which still happily exists, between the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the daughter Botanic Gardens which have gradually been established in practically every British Colony and Dominion. A glance at the Kew Bulletin appendices giving the List of Staffs of the Botanical Departments at home, in India and the Colonies during the last 35 years, will show that gardeners trained at Kew are at the present time, or have been until quite recently, in places so remote as the Falkland Islands, the Fiji Islands, the Seychelles, Rodriguez, Central Africa, Hong Kong, Port Darwin, Australia, New Zealand, and, in fact, throughout the British Empire. One of Sir Joseph Banks' schemes was to found a Herbarium and Library at Kew. The present Herbarium and Library occupies the house originally known as Hunter House (the property of Mr. Robert Hunter), which it is believed was purchased for the King in 1818, at the instigation of Sir Joseph Banks, for the purpose to which it is now dedicated. A room on the ground floor was fitted with bookshelves, and no doubt the botanical collections brought home by the Kew Collectors were deposited in the building. Unfortunately, the King and Sir Joseph both died in 1820, and Kew suffered greatly in consequence. Sir Joseph's Library and Herbarium, including the botanical speci- mens brought home by the Kew Collectors, were bequeathed to the British Museum, and became the foundation of its Botanical Department, so that Kew, unfortunately, does not now possess the fruits of the labours of her earliest sons. George IV. at first took a good deal of interest in Kew, and adhered to the plan of adapting Hunter House to its present purpose. He also added considerably to the amenities of the Gardens on the Kew Green side, but in 1823 he sold Hunter House to the Nation. Notwithstanding this, how- ever, William IV., about 1830, granted its use to the Duchess of Cumberland for her life, and, on the Duke's accession to the throne of Hanover, it became generally known as Hanover House. Here the King of Hanover sometimes resided, but after his death in 1851, it remained unoccupied, and,in 1852 its use for Herbarium purposes once more commenced, thanks to the action of Sir William Hooker. The house itself now serves as our Library, while the Herbarium occupies two extensive wings which have been added to the north and to the west of the original house. The Herbarium contains a remark- able series of specimens of dried plants from every part of the world, representing especially the floras of the various parts of the British Empire. Between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 specimens and comprehensive collections of plant portraits, fruits and seeds are preserved in the Herbarium, while the Library, which is probably the finest botanical library in existence, con- tains some 30,000 volumes. The annvial additions of pressed specimens to the Herbarium amount to about 30,000 sheets. The death of Sir Joseph Banks, in 1820, was a serious blow to Kew, and though the activities which he initiated, and which received such warm support from George III., were continued to some extent after his death, there was no real progress in the development of the Gardens, but rather they suffered a steady decline. This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 90 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923. George IV. soon abandoned Kew for Windsor and Sir Everard Home appears to have assumed the task of directing the affairs of Kew, and used to meet at the house of Francis Bauer " the eminent men of the day for purposes connected with Botany and other branches of Natural Philosophy." Francis Bauer, F.R.S., it should be mentioned, was an Austrian who came to England in 1788 and in 1790 was, through Sir Joseph Banks' liberality and with the King's sanction, attached as Draughtsman to the Botanic Garden. He occupied the position for fifty years, until his death in 1840. This most essential post in connection with a Botanical Institution such as Kew has recently been properly recognised by Govern- ment, and a Botanical Artist is now one of the established officers on the scientific staff of the Royal Botanic Gardens. Sir Everard Home died in 1832, two years after the death of George IV., and, though William IV. took a warm interest in Kew, the Gardens and all that Sir Joseph Banks had laboured to achieve, languished, and their scientific importance was so lost sight of that the scientific botanists of the day appear almost entirely to have got out of touch with Kew. Collecting activities fortunately did not entirely cease, and some valuable additions were made, but the Gardens were still a private establishment. Visitors, however, had free access on certain days, thanks largely to Mr. W. T. Aiton (son of the first Curator, W. Aiton), who was Director- General not only of Kew but of other Royal Pleasure Gardens in addition. It was after the death of William IV., in 1837, that the position of the Royal Gardens became precarious, and their abandonment was seriously considered, so much so, that the Treasury in January, 1838, appointed a Committee " to inquire into the manage- ment, etc., of the Royal Gardens." This committee consisted of Dr. Lindley and two practical gardeners, one of whom was the future Sir Joseph Paxton. Without going into the full details of their inquiry, and narrating all that took place when Dr. Lindley's Report was presented to Parlia- ment in 1840 - though he reported in 1838 - it will suffice to record that after the dis- cussion in the House of Lords, the charge of Kew was removed from the control of the Board of Green Cloth, and transferred to the Department of Woods and Works on March 11th, 1840.* On the dissociation of the Department of Woods from the Office of Works, Kew, like the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, came under the control of H.M. Office of Works, but though the Edinburgh Gardens are still in the domain of the First Com- missioner of H.M. Works, Kew was trans- ferred in 1903 to the care of the Board (now the Ministry) of Agriculture and Fisheries, as far as its general administration is concerned. When this transfer took place, it was laid down " that the privilege enjoyed by the Foreign Office, Colonial Office and India Office of corresponding directly with the Director will be preserved to those Depart- ments," and I need hardly point out, that from the nature of the work performed at Kew, this very important privilege is highly valued by the Director of Kew. The outcome of Dr. Lindley's Report was the renaissance of the Royal Gardens, which dates from the year 1841, when, on April 1st, Sir William Hooker, F.R.S., Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow, was appointed Director of the Botanic Gardens. In the year 1841, W. T. Aiton resigned his position of Superintendent of the Botanic Garden - a post he had held for fifty years - and John Smith, previously Foreman, was appointed Curator, and was the first Curator of Kew as a Public Establishment. The continuance of the existence of Kew in these evil days seems to have been due rather to the interest of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, than to the popular agitation that ♦The following is the principal part of Dr. Lindley's Report presented to Parliament in 1840. "The importance of Botanic Gardens has for centuries been recognised by the governments of civilised states, and at this time there is no European nation without such an establishment except England. The wealthiest and most civilised country in Europe offers the only European example of the want of one of the first proofs of wealth and civilisation. There are many gardens in the British Colonies and Dependencies, as Calcutta, Bombay, Saharun- pore, the Mauritius, Sydney and Trinidad, costing many thousands a year ; their utility is much diminished by the want of some system under which they can all be regulated and controlled. There is no unity of purpose among them ; their objects are unsettled, their powers wasted from not receiving a proper direction ; they afford no aid to each other, and, it is to be feared, but little to the countries where they are established ; and yet they are capable of conferring very important benefits on commerce, and of conducing essentially to colonial prosperity. ... A National Botanic Garden would be the centre around which all these lesser establishments should be arranged ; they should all be placed under the control of the chief of that garden, acting with him and through him with each other, recording constantly their proceedings, explaining their wants, receiving supplies, and aiding the mother country in everything useful in the vegetable kingdom ; medicine, commerce, agriculture, horticulture, and many branches of manufacture would derive considerable advantage from the establishment of such a system. . . . From a garden of this kind Government could always obtain authentic and official information upon points connected with the establishment of new colonies." This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th , 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 91 its proposed abandonment aroused. The following extract from a letter to John Smith by Mr. Aylmer Bourke Lambert, a private gentleman keenly interested in botany, who seems to have succeeded to the role of Sir Joseph Banks in the affairs of Kew, is of interest in showing the part played by the Sovereign in the preservation of Kew. March 9th, 1840. ' ' You will not be a little surprised, and I think not less grateful when I tell you that your letter that you wrote me giving particulars of the origin of Kew Gardens, and the interest taken by the Princess of Saxe -Gotha, that said letter went to the throne, and (was) read by Her Majesty and Prince Albert, they were much interested in it. There is no doubt that was the reason Lord Ilchester came to Kew, as he is one of Her Majesty's house- hold." Sir William's charge, when he assumed office, comprised only 15 acres, yet his appointment inaugurated that new era in the history of Kew, which, though perhaps in some directions not so eventful as in the days of Sir Joseph Banks, has been a period of uninterrupted progress and notable achievement. These, then, were the traditions of Kew, and such were the labours of other men into which Sir William Hooker, in 1841, was called upon to enter. In that year, Kew was not, alas, the inspiring place created by Sir Joseph Banks, but a moribund and decadent institution waiting to be restored to its former eminence, a task for which Sir William was peculiarly fitted. It is no doubt his son and successor in office, Sir Joseph Hooker, who is generally thought of as the Director who re-established the prestige of Kew and succeeded in making it the centre of botanical enterprise for the Empire, but it must not be forgotten that practically every one of the proposals and schemes for the development of the work of Kew on the lines which are still followed, were conceived with remarkable foresight and set in motion by Sir William Hooker. In 1843 Sir William Hooker, as I have stated, reverted to the plan initiated by Sir Joseph Banks, of sending collectors to distant countries for the purpose of trans- mitting plants and seeds to the Royal Gardens. Among Sir William's Collectors should be mentioned W. Purdie, who was sent to New Granada ; G. Mann, who went to the Cameroons, Gaboon River and Fernando Po ; W. B. Baikie and C. Barter, who went to the Niger ; John (later Sir John) Kirk, to the Zambesi with Livingstone; Sir Joseph Hooker to the Himalaya ; Edmonstone, followed by B. C. Seemann, to Western and Arctic America in H.M.S. Herald, and the latter to the Fiji Islands with Col. Smythe's mission, and also R. Spruce who was sent to Ecuador for Cinchona seeds. It would be a long story were I to attempt to give in detail the history of the many activities of Kew, even with regard to India and our overseas Dominions and Colonies during the Directorships of the two Hookers, of Sir William Thiselton-Dyer and of Sir David Prain ; for the Director of Kew is also Botanical Adviser to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and is consulted on Indian botanical matters by the Secretary of State for India. Thus the shelves of the Director's office are filled with folios dealing with questions concerning the introduction • of useful plants to our Colonies and India from other regions, and with every sort of enquiry as to the world's economic products so far as they relate to the vegetable kingdom. The work of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, is divided up into four main divisions, only one of which, however, is generally known about and appreciated by the people of this country. This, I need hardly say, is the garden proper. To most people the name Kew Gardens, or as they should properly be called, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, represents a beautiful garden of herbaceous plants, trees and shrubs, and many greenhouses, some of which they find uncomfortably hot. To a select few, who, one is glad to say, are ever an increasing number, the Gardens are recognised as the place where the attempt is made to cultivate every variety of plant " that is pleasant to the sight and good for food," under the best conditions that Kew can provide, and they, together with those botanists who are also lovers of plants, fully appreciate the scientific order of the collections. These have been so skilfully arranged, thanks largely to the keen instinct for landscape effect possessed by Sir William Thiselton- Dyer and by the Curators of the Gardens, that the general public are scarcely aware that the garden lay out is governed by any scientific principles at all. One is tempted to believe that among our many student visitors there are some This content downloaded from fff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org 92 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923 . who have realised that the 4 4 Tree of Knowledge " also is to be found at Kew. The next department which commands a fair share of public interest, and also, one hopes, serves as a means of liberal education, is that of the Museums. Four Museum buildings now house the varied and extensive economic collections, which comprise examples of the economic products of the plants of the world. The Museum collections, though brought together with the definite purpose of illustrating the uses to which plants may be put, are really complementary and ancillary to the collections in the Herbarium and in the Garden, and one collection without the other would lose very much of its importance and value. The housing of the collections in four separate buildings, is an unfortunate arrangement as far as economical working of the Department is concerned, and also somewhat unsatisfactory since three of the buildings have been adapted to serve their present purpose and are not as well suited for the exhibition of specimens as they might be. The original museum collection, which was the first of its kind brought together for the purpose of exhibiting in systematic order the economic products derived from plants, was due to the foresight of Sir William Hooker. In 1847, owing to Sir William's representations, the fruit store- house belonging to the Royal Family, now Museum No. II., was, by Her Majesty's command, added to the Botanic Garden and Sir William's own private collection, which he presented to the Nation, formed the nucleus around which our present extensive collections have been built up. The objects exhibited could not be shown either by the living plants in the Garden or by the specimens preserved in the Her- barium, and the value of these collections has become increasingly evident iii the course of years, so that now practically every vegetable product from any part of the globe can be accurately determined. As soon as the establishment and aim of the Museum was generally made known, contributions poured in from all quarters of the world, and the original building became so crowded that application had to be made to Parliament for a new building for the proper accommodation of the specimens. In 1857, to meet this need, the present No. 1 Museum was opened. Here the economic products derived from the Dicoty- ledonous plants (including such well-known objects as cocoa, coffee, cinchona, rubber, tea, etc.), are displayed, while the products derived from the Monocotyledons, such as palms, bamboos, grasses, the various food grains and articles, such as mats, hats, vegetable ivory, etc., are exhibited in the original museum, now called Museum No. II. Thus it may now, I believe, be said with full truth that it is almost impossible to point out any Colonial product, however insignificant, which is not adequately repre- sented in the Kew Museums. No. Ill Museum, the home of Tropical Timbers in particular, was formerly the Orangery of the original Royal Gardens ; while No. IV. Museum, our most recent, acquisition, which contains a remarkable collection of British-grown timber, and the articles made therefrom, as well as a com- plete series of the fungus and insect pests to which trees are subject in this country, has been housed in Cambridge Cottage. This building was formerly the private residence of His Royal Highness, the late Duke of Cambridge, and was after his death graciously made over to Kew by the Crown, and opened to the public in 1910. Three of our Museum Buildings, as I have mentioned, are none too well suited for their purpose, since they were not built for the display of museum specimens, still, they serve their function very fairly well. No. I. Museum was enlarged in the year 1881, and both it and No. II., which is the least suitable for a museum, are now inconveniently crowded. It is to be hoped that before long a further enlargement of No. I. Museum may be sanctioned on such a scale that not only the crowded out products derived from the Dicotyledonous plants can be included, but also the Monocotyledon exhibits now displayed in No. II. Museum. If this should ever be sanctioned, then the whole range of vegetable products, exclusive of the timbers of the world, could be studied under one roof, in proper systematic sequence. What, it may be asked, is the purpose of these collections, and in what way are they connected with the work of Kew ? Their chief object is to show the practical applications of botanical science, and to enable students and those engaged in commercial pursuits both at home and from overseas, to appreciate the general relations of the vegetable world to man, and in This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th , 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 93 particular to exhibit the vast resources of the Empire. We learn from them the sources of the innumerable products furnished by plants for our use and con- venience, whether as articles of food, of construction and application in the arts, of medicine or curiosity. They also show us the points where we need further informa- tion, more especially as to the origin of many valuable timbers, fibres and drugs. In short, not only do these collections tell us how much we have already dis- covered, but also how little we still know of the extent to which herbs, shrubs and trees contribute to our necessities, comforts and our numberless requirements. Closely associated with the Museums, as it is also with the garden proper and the work of the Herbarium, the Jodrell Laboratory must now be mentioned. Here, thanks to the munificence of Mr. T. J. Phillips Jodrell, who built and equipped the Laboratory at his own expense in 1876, we have a department where wTork can be undertaken to determine the structure, functions and properties of obscure vegetable products, and it is seldom that it is not possible by means of careful research, to solve the problems which are constantly being presented to us by our correspondents both at home and abroad. Without the wealth of material in the Museums and the Herbarium for comparison and examination, the many valuable results which have been achieved in this laboratory would not have been possible. The Laboratory is also fitted for physio- logical and mycological investigations, and some famous researches by distinguished botanists have been carried out within its walls. Research students are welcomed here, and are able to study, as nowhere else, the problems presented by the vegeta- tion of the globe illustrated, as it is, by the collections of living and preserved plants in the Royal Botanic Gardens. The North Gallery, built and presented by Miss Marianne North, in 1885, is also an appanage of the Museums, and, as is well- known, in this remarkable botanical picture gallery plants from all over the world may be seen painted in oils by her master hand. The pictures are renowned for their botanical accuracy as well as for their artistic skill, and these qualities render them of infinite value in a scientific establishment like Kew where an attempt is made to grow, portray, preserve and study as fully as possible the wonders of the vegetable kingdon. A smaller collection of pictures by Miss M. H. Mason, of South African plants, in Museum No. IV., may also be referred to here, since they enable us to appreciate very clearly the special characteristics of the vegetation of South Africa. This brings me to the fourth depart- ment, the Herbarium. The present Her- barium collections, as I have stated, owe their origin to Sir William Hooker, since those earlier and famous collections made by Sir Joseph Banks and the Kew Collectors, are now at South Kensington. When Sir William came to Kew, he brought with him his own large collection of dried plants, and in 1854 this was greatly augmented by the collections of the dis- tinguished botanist, Mr. George Bentham, who presented his fine private Herbarium and Library to the Nation. This nucleus has been continually added to by official contributions, by exchanges and by the judicious expenditure of our small annual parliamentary grant voted for the purpose, so that now the Kew Herbarium contains between three and four million specimens. In the Herbarium, which is the largest and most completely organised in the world, in addition to the collection of dried speci- mens, we possess a magnificent collection of coloured botanical drawings of plants, so that not only can a large number of the plants of the globe be studied in the living condition, and as pressed specimens, but they can be examined as delineated by botanical artists, both as they have flowered at home, and also in many cases (Miss North's pictures) as they grow and flower in their native countries. Such botanical studies are of very great assistance to the work performed at Kew in connection with the Floras of the different parts of the world. The work carried out in the Herbarium is one of the most important of the functions of Kew. What exactly that work is may be gathered from a perusal of the pages of the Kew Bulletin for the year 1905, compiled by Sir William Thiselton- Dyer. In addition to the attempt that is being made to complete a botanical survey of the Empire, detailed researches are being undertaken in connection with the floras of the world, and particular attention is always being paid to the determination of plants which may prove to be of economic This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 94 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28tli, 1923. importance, whether as food or for use in the arts, and which might be introduced with advantage to one or other of our over- seas possessions. Unless a plant, which may possess definite economic possibilities, has been identified botanically, it is quite useless to attempt its introduction to cultivation without incurring the grave risk of bringing in a worthless plant. The more we get to know about plants, and the more we discover how considerable a range of variation they exhibit, both as regards form and in their constitution, the more we understand the importance of arriving at an exact determination of the particular species or of some special varietal form which it may be desirable to introduce in order that it may be a commercial success. Had it been appreciated earlier that species show fundamental physiological varia- tions, which are often only rendered apparent by experiment in the laboratory, as well as the more easily discernible morphological variations, much labour and money might have been saved. I may instance two examples which affect the British Empire, with both of which Kew has been intimately concerned. In the one case, that of Camphor, the pro- duct derived from Cinnamomum Camphora , Nees, native of Formosa and Japan, Kew must plead ignorance. In the other, that of Para Rubber Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. Arg. the blame must be attached to the rubber growers. They failed to appreciate the fact that science could help them in selecting the best trees to cultivate in their plantations and thought that from the seeds of any tree of Hevea brasiliensis they would obtain the plants they required. Scientific research, however, has shown that the percentage of latex yielded by individual trees varies very greatly in amount, for while some trees yield only 2% of latex, others yield as much as 40%. Had the warning note which was sounded by Kew and by others been regarded, which was, that seed from untested trees should not be sown pro- miscuously, rubber plantations to-day might have been furnished with a larger proportion of the best latex -yielding trees than is now the case. With regard to Camphor, it is only recently that it has become known in the West that there are two varietal forms of the Camphor tree, both so alike in their external botanical characters that they can hardly be separated. One of these yields the valuable solid camphor on distillation, the other camphor oil, a product of little commercial use. Since Camphor can be cultivated in several British Colonies, seed was obtained through Kew for growing in Mauritius, the West Indies and other Colonies. Unhappily, however, the seed which was procured emanated from the oil- producing trees, which were well-known to the senders, so that, except in a few isolated cases, there are scarcely any true Camphor trees in the British Colonies. Problems of this nature abound in the realms of economic botany, as for instance, the exact determination of the best type of Willow for making cricket bats which was worked out at Kew, or in the domain of textiles such as the finding of the best strains of Cotton, New Zealand flax, Sisal or other fibre plants, which from time to time are temptingly brought to the notice of the prospective investor. Several forms are known, both of Agave and Ananas, as members of this society are well aware, which are of little value for fibre production, and such are clearly recog- nisable by their botanical characters. It is in questions such as these that a botanical institution like Kew, with all its resources, can afford so much assistance to industry if only those concerned in commerce will seek our aid. The principal work of the Kew Her- barium, however, is, as I have said, the systematic investigation and description of the floras of the world, and in particular, those of the British Empire. Owing to our close connection with India and the Colonies, vast collections of plants have poured in from every quarter, and it is the work of the Herbarium staň to name, preserve and arrange them so that they may be available for reference and study. It is a matter of regret and a serious handicap to the full measure of our use- fulness, that, despite additions to our staff, the influx of new material has ever been greater than could be absorbed, even with the most unremitting energy. Both the Home and Colonial Govern- ments and the Government of India have been generous in affording financial assist- ance to enable us to tell them of the wealth and potentialities of their floras. But you will, I feel sure, agree that far more help is required if Kew is to maintain its proud position as the premier botanical This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 96 establishment of the world, when I tell you that in our stores we still have accumulations of preserved material, largely from the Empire, amounting to some 200,000 speci- mens. This position, which it must be our earnest endavour to uphold, when British interests are so immense both in the domains of pure and applied botany, can perhaps best be maintained by the generosity of private benefactors, and should there by any happy chance be such an one among my audience, I can assure him that assistance of this nature would benefit humanity at large to no small degree. I may mention here that the great American Institution, the New York Botanical Garden at Bronx Park, has received very large sums in the way of private benefactions, the number and magnitude of which fill me with envy. Science never likes to beg, but should there be anyone anxious to help forward a great task, I would commend to their notice the work which, thanks to the generosity of Charles Darwin, has been undertaken at Kew. I allude to the Index Kewenaie , that great register of all the species of plants, giving their habitats and references to the place and date of publication, of which five supplements have now been published in addition to the four original volumes produced at Darwin's expense. I may mention here that we estimate that the Vlth quinquennial supple- ment of the Index will contain some 35,000 entries of new species, while in the Vth supplement, published in 1921, 37,000 new names were registered. These figures, to- gether with those I have given of the number of our herbarium specimens, will perhaps indicate something of the magni- tude of the work that is being undertaken in the Herbarium, and in particular of the heavy tax on our resources that the prepara- tion of the Index entails ; a work that is indispensable to botanists and horticulturists throughout the world. I must not omit to mention, however, that Kew does receive some valuable help from the Bentham Trustees, who administer the legacy of that illustrious botanist, Mr. George Bentham, who left a sum of money for the purchase of books and specimens for Kew. What, however, has been achieved at the Herbarium in addition to the labours I have already sketched ? I can best answer by pointing to the .long rows of the Colonial and Indian floras, and such ancillary works as " The Dictionary of Economic Products of India," and " The Useful Plants of Nigeria," all of which have been prepared at Kew. The proposal that a series of Colonial floras should be compiled at Kew was made by Sir William Hooker as long ago as 1863, and it is of interest to compare his proposals which were made public in the Annals of Botany for 1902 (p. lxxxiii) with the results that have so far been accom- plished.* ♦" The Life of Sir William Jackson Hooker," by Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, in the Annals of Botany, Vol. XVI., N1. LXIV., Dec., 1902, which gives a vivid account of Sir William Hooker's work at Kew._ See also Kew Bulletin , 1905, p. 20. Colonial and Indian Floras. Sir W. Hookers proposals. Volumes. 1. Australian Colonies including Tasmania. 8- Flora Australiensis. 7. 2. South African Colonies. Ю. Flora Capensis. 3. British North America, Pacific to Atlantic 2- (Not prepared). 4 West Indian Colonies. 2. Flora of the British West Indian Islands. 1. (A new work is now needed.) 5. New Zealand. I- Handbook of the New Zealand Flora. 1 6 Ceylon y 3- Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon. 5 and 1 Ceylon y quarto volume of plates. 7 Hongkong Flora Hongkongensis. 1. в' Mauritius and the Seychelles. 1. Йога of Mauritius and the Sey- 1. chelles. (A new work is now needed.) 9 British Guiana, 2. (Not yet commenced). 10. Honduras. 1- (Not y»t commenced). 11 West African Colonies. 2. Flora of I ropical .Africa. 2. 12 British India. This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 96 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923. In addition to these the following Floras have already appeared, or are in course of preparation, and have been prepared wholly or mainly at Kew : - 1. Materials for the Flora of the Malay Peninsula. 6 volumes. 2. Flora of the Malay Peninsula. 5 volumes, (in preparation, 2 vols, issued) 3. Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain. (1 volume to complete) о volumes. 4. Flora of the Presidency of Madras. 5 parts (under continuation). 5. Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. 2 volumes. 6. Index Florae Sinensis. 'Л volumes. 7. The Commercial Products of India. 1 volume. 8. The Useful Plants of Nigeria. 4 parts. 9. The Flora of West Africa (in preparation). 10. Floras of Bermuda, St. Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha were published in the Scientific results of the Challenger Expedition. 11 Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (Moloney) 1 volume. A proposal to prepare a Flora of Trinidad has been under consideration for some time, but it has not yet been found possible to undertake this very desirable piece of work. In place of Sir William Hooker's proposed " Flora of the West African Colonies," " The Flora of Tropical Africa " has resulted, and is now nearly complete, comprising eleven volumes. So greatly has our know- ledge extended, of the flora of our West African Colonies, that it has been found necessary to ask the Governments of our four West African Colonies, The Gambia, Sierra Leone, The Gold Coast and Nigeria, to subsidise the preparation of a " Flora of West Africa." This proposal, I am happy to say, has received the approval of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and of the Colonial Governments, and work was commenced in September last on this new undertaking. When this new compact Flora is published, it will, I believe, be possible, not only for the botanist but for all in- terested in the vegetation and vast botanical resources of West Africa, to determine the plants they meet with, and learn something of their economic possibilities. The floras of Trinidad, and the splendid vegetation of British Guiana and British Honduras, and, strange as it may seem, the flora of Canada, still await attention ; and, as might be expected, the earlier volumes of the Flora Capensis published between 1859 and 1865, require to be almost entirely re -written, so greatly has our knowledge grown of the vegetation of South Africa in recent years. Similar remarks apply to the Floras of Mauritius and of the West Indies. Thus, though much has been accomp- lished, even more remains to be done, and, as in every other branch of science, it is not possible to foresee any termination to our activities, but rather each accession of new knowledge opens up long vistas and enlarged spheres of useful and necessary work. Not only do we deal in the Herbarium with the flowering plants and ferns, but with the mosses, lichens, seaweeds and fungi of the world as well, and such matters as the serious Panama disease of bananas, the coffee leaf disease ( Hemileia ), which devastated the flourishing coffee plantations in Ceylon, and other noxious or less harmful plant diseases from time to time demand investigation on the part of our scientific assistants. Every post brings some enquiry of interest, and frequently one which neces- sitates careful and laborious research, or, on the other hand, it may open out some possibility of utilising a new economic product for the benefit of one of our distant Colonies. • We are prepared to report upon and obtain advice with regard to new vegetable industries, though it may relate to so small a matter as the supply of West African palm kernels for carving into coat buttons, or as to the value of a pithy stem as a material for a razor strop, on which - before the days of safety razors, I need hardly say- Kew reported to a West Indian Government, or even, quite recently, as to the botanical identity of the wood of a walking stick, about which its owner, as we discovered later, had made a bet ! I must, however, return to the garden side of Kew in order to illustrate more fully our close connection with the Colonies and India. It was through Kew, as I think it is now well-known, that the Para rubber industry of the East was founded, and that the cultivation of Cinchona in India, Ceylon and Jamaica came about. This latter enterprise had been urged by Sir Joseph Banks more than half a century before. These two remarkable introductions of South American economic plants were made This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th. 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 97 possible through the assistance given by Kew to the two enterprises, for the seeds of both plants were despatched to Kew from their native countries (Hevea in 1876, Cinchona in 1861), and the young plants which were raised in our greenhouses were despatched in Wardian cases to the East, where they now flourish. In the one case, the successful achievement has brought very large financial returns, and in the other, the possibility of sound health in the tropics to a vast number of people. I might give an account of many other projects that Kew has undertaken did time permit, such as the introduction of the very useful Teff grass from Abyssinia to South Africa ; the annual sending of Mahogany seeds from the West Indies to India, and the building up there of Mahogany forests ; the advice and help which Kew has afforded to the experiment in aff ores tat - ing the barren tree-less Falkland Islands, and the sending of seeds and cases of useful plants to the Islands of Ascension and St. Helena with the result that Ascension is now furnished with useful thickets of trees. Kew has also rendered assistance which has been of value in setting up the lucrative Onion - growing enterprise in Antigua, and in connection with the making of paper from the " Ginger Lily," Hedychium coronarium . Then, again, reference must be made to the sending of Cacao plants to the Gold Coast since the success of the Cocoa plantations there is largely due to the assistance and advice afforded by the Royal Botanic Gardens. Interesting stories about many other economic plants, valuable for their fibre, for paper making, spices or drugs, or for their food value, with which Kew has been intimately concerned, could also be related. I must, however, pass on to the consideration of a further sphere of usefulness to which we attach great importance, and which has been attended with far-reaching results ; that is, the work of completing the botanical and horticultural training of the young men who come to Kew for a period of two or three years as Student Gardeners. In this respect Kew may be regarded as a University of Horticulture, and perhaps more particularly of Tropical Horticulture, since so many of her sons go out to every part of the Empire to carry on the science and practice of Horticulture in the Botanic Gardens and Agricultural Stations in the Tropics. That this should be the case is only natural since in no other Institution in this country can so much be learned about the vegetation of the Tropics, and the proper method of cultivation of tropical economic and other plants. Men trained in botany and agriculture in our Universities are no doubt well equipped in the scientific principles underlying their subject, buiv they are perforce sadly handicapped, owing to their lack of practical knowledge of the plants which they will meet with in our Colonies in connection with their work. With the growing and legitimate demand for men who have passed through a Uni- versity on the part of the Colonial Govern- ments, the men trained at Kew are often placed in a difficult and unfavourable position, but I venture to say that the best of our students will be found, in the long run, with their practical knowledge added to the theoretical instruction provided for them at Kew, to be able to hold their own in comparison with the men who have had better opportünities in the way of a course at a University or at an Agricultural Collego Neither class of men, I would submit, are entirely satisfactory for sending out straight from home to some distant Colony where they will be confronted with problems with which they are, to a great extent, unfamiliar, but now that the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture has been so successfully established in Trinidad, I am convinced that at last we have the opportunity of completing the education necessary both for the University candidate and for the man trained at Kew, so that they may become efficient scientific officers qualified to serve in whichever of our Tropical Colonies or Dominions their services may be required. I have recently had occasion to bring this aspect of the training of scientific officers for colonial posts to the notice of the Secre- tary of State for the Colonies, and I hope that my proposals may meet with His Grace's approval, and that they may also be favourably considered by the Governors and Directors of Agriculture of our Colonies. The important part that Kew has played in the past, and I am glad to say is still maintaining, in sending out her sons to distant lands in Government service, is, as I have indicated earlier, in direct con- tinuity with the policy initiated by Sir Joseph Banks over a century ago, when Kew men were sent to take charge öf the Botanic Gardens in Ceylon, St. Vincent and Trinidad. This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 98 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923. The connection between the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the many daughter Botanic Gardens and Stations overseas - which have now very generally become the centres of flourishing Agricultural Depart- ments - has been of inestimable benefit both to the Home and to the Colonial In- stitutions, and has served to weld that link of union and mutual help and sympathy which it is so essential to preserve. Before leaving this portion of my subject, I may perhaps be allowed to mention that at the present time among the higher posts held by Kew men in the Colonies, one of our former student gardeners is Director of Agriculture in the Gambia and another is Commissioner of Lands and Forests, Sierra Leone. Another is Super- intendent of the Botanic and Forestry Department, Hongkong, and the Economic Botanist, Trinidad, also received his early training at Kew, while the Superintendents and Curators of almost every one of our Tropical Agricultural Stations and Botanic Gardens have passed through Kew. In the United States of America it is of interest to note that Kew -trained men are held in high esteem. One is now Assistant Director of the famous Arnold Arboretum, and several others hold important horticultural appoint- ments in that country. The value of the Kew training is further emphasised by the fact that several of our Scientific Assistants received their early training in the Gardens, including the present Assistant Director, who, before returning to Kew last year, held important posts in the Gold Coast as Assistant and Deputy Conservator of Forests and in Singapore as Assistant Director of the Botanic Gardens. I cannot close this account of the work of the Royal Botanic Gardens without a brief reference to the building where all the various activities are centred, namely, the Director's Office ; a small and un- pretentious building of great interest from its historical associations. I believe the Director of Kew has been compared to a spider at the centre of his web, and the comparison is not altogether inept, since he has to keep in intimate touch with all the threads of the work in progress in each of the separate departments, and with all the important matters raised by corres- pondents at home and abroad. It is also his duty, and it is a very pleasant and interesting side of the Kew work, to keep himself informed as to the progress of botanical and agricultural affairs in India, the Dominions and the Colonies, and to do whatever may lie in his power to help forward their various enterprises. The crowded shelves on the walls of the Director's room afford some evidence of the nature of the work, as any visitor to his office can see, for every folio bears in large letters on its back the name of some dependency of the Crown or of a subdivision of India, or of a Dominion. In fact, a stranger might well think that he had inadvertently entered the office of the President of the Royal Geographical Society or the room of the Secretary of State for the Colonies in mistake for the Director's Office at Kew. The average daily post bag also reflects very clearly the Imperial nature of the work of Kew. Letters and parcels come from every part of the world, and may relate to such varied subjects as the possibility of introducing the mulberry tree to British Honduras ; the Panama disease of bananas ; the suitability of Newfoundland lichens for reindeer food ; the precautions that should be taken to prevent undue destruction of the oil palm in West Africa ; the identity of the seeds in a mixture of chicken food, a query possibly involving some legal action ; or as to the botanical identity of a tropical plant about which all information is withheld by the senders, who we subsequently find are interested in the promotion of a company for its exploitation. In the latter case, I think the enquirers would be a little disturbed did they know how much we had been able to discover about their plant, bearing some camouflaged name, both as to its country of origin, chances of success under cultivation and so on. There is also the extensive and more purely scientific correspondence to be attended to with botanical establishments on the Con- tinent and in America, Java and the East as well as with our colleagues in our home universities and colleges. Visitors, too, are sometimes almost as numerous and varied as the letters, for like them they come from every part of the world, and serve as a pleasant reminder that the work of Kew is appreciated throughout the Empire, and their visits to Kew help to strengthen that tie of mutual sympathy and intercourse the value of which we fully realise. That several members of the staff have personal acquaintance with most parts of the world enables Kew to give more useful This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 2 sth , 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 99 advice and criticism than might otherwise be possible. I hope I may have been able to give you some small idea of what the work of Kew really is, and that though this work is pre-eminently scientific, KewT is, nevertheless, keenly alive to the interests that make countries prosperous and wealthy. In the words of Sir William Thiselton-Dyer - which are, I believe, as true now as when they were written over forty years ago - Kew " has itself grown and flourished under its past and present Chiefs . . . not so much from its dependence upon their merits, but rather because the principles of its administration have been essentially British and practical. " It has steadily set itself to do every kind of public work which is connected with botanical science. 44 It was never launched with a theoretically complete equipment and constitution, but it has slowly earned every advantage that has been conceded to it, and, as its labours have been enlarged, so its capacity for their performance has been increased." The following testimony, extracted from a speech by Mr. Joseph Chamberlain in the House of Commons on August 2nd, 1898, will show how much, in the opinion of the most famous of Colonial Secretaries, the Colonies owe to Kew : " I do not think it is too much to say that at the present time there are several of our important Colonies which owe whatever prosperity they possess to the knowledge and experience of, and the assistance given by, the authorities at KewT Gardens. Thousands of letters pass every year between the authorities at Kew and the Colonies, and they are able to place at the services of those Colonies not only the best advice and experience, but seeds and samples of economic plants capable of cultivation in the Colonies." I have attempted to show how much of what Kew has become is due to the initiative and foresight of Sir Joseph Banks and Sir William Hooker, and I think if it were desired to place an inscription beneath a monument to either of these great men, relating to their work at Kew, the following verses from the Book of Ecclesiasticus, which refer to "Wisdom," might very fittingly be selected : - 4 4 1 came out as a brook from a river, and as a conduit into a garden. " I said, I will water my best garden and will water abundantly my garden bed ; and lo, my brook became a river, and my river became a sea." DISCUSSION. The Chairman said that they had listened to an exceedingly interesting and very complete account of a famous Institution. He supposed that Kew and perhaps the waxworks in Marylebone Road were the two best-known places in London, not only to the provincial, but to the foreigner. He had often been surprised, while talking to foreigners in different places, by tlieir knowledge of Kew, which was the one place that they wanted to come to England to see. It was no little privilege to be associated with a Garden such as Kew, and he entertained a certain envy of the lecturer. Dr. Hill had told them something of the history of Kew during the last 150 years. In seeing Kew to-day one wras sometimes apt to forget the wonderful services which had been rendered to the Carden in time past by the pioneers, especially the two Hookers, father and son ; and there were many other botanists that one might mention whose names came to mind. He remembered Sir Joseph Hooker in one or several of his letters complaining that the young botanists of his day did not know their plants, and the speaker was afraid that this was still true of some of the older botanists. Many botanical students, while having an intimate acquaintance with the insides of plants, had only the slenderest knowledge of their outsides. He himself had been more or less brought up in that sort of school. He was not going to complain of his teachers, because he felt nothing but gratitude towards most of them ; but it was the fact that at that time - and he was afraid that the schools were yet not quite free from the reproach - one learned a good deal of the microscopic characters of plants without knowing what the plants themselves looked like. Students could improve their education at Kew in that respect. One thing that always struck him about Kew was that it appealed to every sort of person, not only botanists, but all men who had any aesthetic sense (and most people had some). The botanist himself approached Kew with a sense of awe, while the ordinary non-botanical person who went there, probably walked about as if the place belonged to him. He himself remembered going to the Director's office - long before the time of the present Director - in fear and trembling, though he found when he got into his presence that the Director was a human being, and indeed his experience had always been that the Directors of Kew were essentially human. So long as that state of affairs continued, the fortunes of Kew might safely be left in their hands. A great deal had been heard that evening about the work which Kew had done and was doing - its variety and utility. But he thought that Kew might even do a little more than it was doing, and he hoped that in future it would develop along new lines of activity. There was still room for expansion at Kew on the experimental side, and the best wish one could express for its future was that it might go on developing in the This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 100 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December 28th, 1923. future with the same rapidity as in the past. They had been told that evening that science never liked to beg. As a matter of fact, he thought that the lecturer had begged very nicely, and he would be very glad - he did not wish to appear as a rival beggar - if an additional endowment could be obtained for that wonderful book, the Index Kewevsis. That was a work to which every botanist owed a great deal, and to which he turned very frequently for information, and he would like to support the appeal which had been so delicately made that evening by the Director of Kew. Professor F. W. Oliver, F.R.S., said that the Chairman had called upon him to speak probably because he knew that the first half of his life was spent in the Gardens as the son of an official, and that he could speak quite freely. He had always been an admirer of Kew, as well as its critic. His criticisms, however, he reserved for private consumption. Nor was he going to indulge in reminiscences of those early days when he lived in the Gardens, except to say that his recollections of fifty years ago were extraordinarily vivid because Kew to him then was naturally the centre of his world, as well as the centre of the botanical world. In the sixties and seventies of the last century the dominant element in botany was the systematists. They occupied all the principal positions in the botanical world, and with them resided the power of conferring appointments upon others. If at that time a botanical post was desired one naturally made friends with the Hookers or their successors. That state of affairs had gone and could never return on account of the enormous subdivision and development of the branches of botanical science. But in those days the whole botanical world used to come to Kew and reside for a week or a month or more on Kew Green, especially in the Long Vacation. Dozens of the most eminent botanists, British and foreign, were to be seen there. All this left an indelible impression on his mind, the more so because they used to talk quite freely to him, and say what they thought of Kew. They agreed that it was a most wonderful place, and then they held up their hands and said, " But, you know, the whole thing is simply wasted. Not more than one per cent, of the resources and material at Kew is utilised in any way whatever in the advancement of knowledge." What they meant was that all the plants that could be grown in the world were being grown at Kew, but that was all ; the harvest was rich, but the reapers were few. The other point he remembered was this, that he and others would utilise Kew in an illegitimate way - bird-nesting, for example. Kew had an extraordinary range of birds and bird-nests, and he learned most of his ornithology in Kew Gardens. Occasionally he would use a gun for shooting game birds, sometimes even out of season ! But one felt that Kew at that time sadly lacked the element of youth. This systematic aspect of botany got a little bit upon one's nerves. One of the most happy episodes in the development of Kew was the foundation of the Jodrell Laboratory, to which Dr. Hill alluded, and particularly the association with it of Dr. Scott. When the history of botany at the end of last century and the beginning of the present century came to be written the work done in the Jodrell Laboratory connected with Dr. Scott would receive full justice. His was a most extraordinary output from one man, and the number of young people he interested in the subject of botany as a whole was quite remarkable. Almost every botanist for the last forty years had passed under the influence of Dr. Scott, and lasting and extra- ordinary benefits had resulted to all of them. The speaker's last point was to suggest that some- thing in the nature of an entente might come about- bet ween Kew Gardens and, if not a university, a sort of department of botany or botanical institute, which would have the privilege of using Kew and advancing the knowledge of the subject. He was not implying any blame to anybody, but it was perfectly impossible for the officials of a Garden to succeed in the double duty of administra- tion and of advancing to the full the knowledge of the subject. At one time he was almost thinking of getting up a syndicate to carry out this idea - in other words, to acquire Gloucester House close by and convert it under a syndicate into a botanical institute ; but that never came to anything, and the building was taken over as a college for the training of miners and other working-men who became leaders of labour. Any such development might not come within the next twenty or thirty years, but he felt sure that at some time or other an educational side would develop in connection with Kew, in the most friendly relations with the Gardens, and yet not under their authority. Kew was a Government institution, and it was out of the question to have an educational body under the orders of a Government office, although too often one found that such was the relationship. The name of Sir Joseph Banks had been mentioned that evening. Banks was not merely a botanist, he moved in the great world and knew everybody. Those who had read the Faringtbn Diaries, lately published in the Morning Poet , would have noted with pleasure the frequent appearance of Sir Joseph Banks, not only in social engagements, but on his travels, in his illnesses, and at his eatings and wine- drinkings. The Diaries showed that Banks was very human, in which respect he resembled the Directors of later times. Those must have been great days,' when men were still in touch with the tradition of Linnaeus, who made the subject of botany more popular, he supposed, than it had ever been before, and certainly than it had ever been since. Linnaeus made certain aspects of botany at once accessible to common men. There was no more fashionable pursuit 160 years ago than the study of botany. Whether those days would ever come back again or not it was impossible to say ; probably they would not. Dr. J. A. Voelcker said that he could not claim, like the last speaker, to have spent his early days This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt December 28th, 1923. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 101 at Kew. He had to speak rather from the point of view of the ordinary visitor, and as such he would like to be the medium of expressing the great indebtedness of the public to those who directed such a place as Kew. He did not know what others thought, but he had often remarked, on his periodical visits, that he always came away feeling that he had got something for the payment of his imperial taxes ! Whether people simply walked round and enjoyed the sight of the plants and the museums and ended up with tea at the Pagoda, or whether they went with more serious intentions, they must always feel, he thought, that they had got something for being citizens of the Empire. But for those who knew the subject more closely there was a much wider sphere of interest at Kew, and it was very instructive to have heard from the Director himself an account of the history and of the present activities embraced under the name of Kew. If he might be allowed as a layman to speak from his own experience, he would like to acknowledge the courtesy and the readiness to help which resulted from addressing inquiries to Kew. In his owTi agricultural work he had had from time to time to refer questions to Kew, and it was almost unnecessary for. him to say that the officials there were willing to go to endless trouble in satisfying the requests of those who applied to them. The British public did not fully know of this ; they did not realise that institutions such as Kew were there for the purpose of affording information to inquirers, and the number of questions which the obliging officials there were able to answer was remarkable. We needed to be reminded that Kew was a national possession. It was one of the places to which we had a right to go, and if the public did not use the stores of information available, the fault was that of the public and not of Kew. At all events, he could say for the Directors of Kew Gardens, and now for the present Director, that they were always willing and ready to afford information to those who inquired. He could bear out from his own experience what Dr. Hill had said with regard to the influence of Kew in other parts of the Empire. It had been his lot to travel about in India, and wherever he went he found a number of people in constant touch with Kew. The Gardens at Calcutta, Saharanpur, and elsewhere were in regular correspondence with Kew. The same thing obtained in the West Indies and elsewhere. All this formed part of a vast system for the gathering together of information which was for the benefit of science, and which also served commercial interests. There were a large number of cases in which the accumulated knowledge of Kew, from purely scientific sources, had been devoted to the expansion of commercial interests. Science was not valued purely for its own sake, but for the extent also to which it could be used in the general service. He had been interested to hear of the different changes that Kew had gone through in its time, how the original plan was conceived and carried out, and how it then underwent a period of decadence, when another institution, the British Museum, came up and secured the early records of Kew. He did not know that that was altogether a bad move ; it was not always a mistake to have two institutions, one keeping the other up to the mark. At all events, the old plan had been reverted to, and the system of having collectors and correspondents all over the world had been retained, and all who had listened to the lecture that evening would wish good success to that work. Mr. E. Shine said that in the Ministry of Agriculture he had the pleasure of working with the Director of Kew. The Director had rather slurred over, in his paper, the connection with the Ministry of Agriculture, and he for his part only wished that the Ministry of Agriculture had the same interesting dealings with Kew that, he understood, the Foreign Office, the Colonial Office, and other departments of Government had. The Ministry of Agriculture's concern at Kew often related to such dull questions as to whether perambulators should be permitted to go into the Gardens, and whether the entrance fee should be a penny, twopence, or nothing at all. The Ministry of Agriculture was very glad to be connected with a department like Kew Gardens, which, he thought, was always in favour with the general public. At the Ministry they were so accustomed to people finding fault with them on such questions as rabies, foot and mouth disease, and so on, that it was quite pleasant to hear everybody exclaim that everything in the garden was lovely ! So far as the officials at the Ministry were concerned, their relations with the Director and officials were always most harmonious, and they welcomed at the Ministry the privilege of being associated with them. The Secretary said that there was one small point to which he would like to draw attention. The Director of Kew had referred at the beginning of his paper to the introduction of the bread-fruit tree to the West Indies. The speaker merely wished to point out, as a sort of foot-note to the paper, that the whole question of the conveyance of that bread-fruit tree to the West Indies was due to the work of the Society. Sir Henry Trueman Wood, in his History of the Society, related how Sir Joseph Banks, who was a member, took a great interest in this question, and it was on his suggestion that a prize was offered with this particular object. As a result of that prize, Captain Bligh undertook his expedition on the " Bounty." He failed the first time, but on his second expedition, in 1793, he succeeded. On his return he sent in a full report of the whole affair to the Society, and as a result of that he was awarded the Gold Medal. The Chairman felt sure that the andience would wish to express its hearty thanks to the Director of Kew. He could only say for himself that although he had been more or less familiar with Kew for some time, he had been somewhat ignorant of its past history, and had not realised the full extent of its activities until that evening. It would be This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to htt 102 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. December mh, 1923. a great advantage to many to have this paper in a form in which it could be readily referred to, and he was very glad that it was going to be printed in the Journal. It would be a most valuable paper for reference. A vote of thanks was passed unanimously. Dr. Hill briefly acknowledged the compliment, and the meeting terminated. NOTES ON BOOKS. Life of Sir William White, K.C.B., F.R.S., LLD., D.Sc. By Frederick Manning, with an introduction by The Rt. Hon. Lord George Hamilton, G.C.S.I., LL.D., D.C.L. London : John Murray. 1923. Sir William White died in 1913 at the age of 68, so that it is time for his life to be written, if it is to be read by any of his contemporaries. Not very many of them can still survive, and the list is rapidly diminishing. One of them, Lord George Hamilton, fortunately is still alive and contributes, as an introduction to this volume, a warm and generous appreciation of Sir William's character and public service. Lord George and Sir William White were born in the same year. One was First Lord of the Admiralty when the other was appointed Director of Naval construction, and the mutual liking and admiration conceived by each for the other continued till Sir William's death. Sir William White's life just synchronised with the era of change brought about by the introduction of steam as a motive power, and the substitution of iron for wood in the construction of war-ships. The first work on which he was employed as a dockyard apprentice was the conversion of a sailing ship into a screw- propelled steamer. When he resigned his post at the Admiralty, British war-ships had become the huge swift engines of destruction which saved the country from invasion in the great war which began a year after his death. From the time of Elizabeth till the day of Trafalgar, there had been no great change in our ships, and in the half-century which followed Trafalgar the improvement had been but small. Now, a single modern line-of-battleship (given, of course, a sufficient supply of ammunition) could send to the bottom, herself uninjured, the great Armada and the English ships which drove it to destruction, or the combined fleets which fought at Trafalgar. It is not, of course, suggested that these great changes were in any sense due to Sir William White. Things would have taken the same course had he never lived, and even when they were modified by individual direction, he was only one of many whose influence affected the direction of change and its character ; but he took his full share of the work. To call him " the greatest naval architect this world has ever seen," is to make rather a strong statement, but certainly among his contemporaries he had few, if any, equals, and certainly no superior. He started in life as a dockyard apprentice, after a discussion, it would appear, between some of his friends as to whether he should not be trained for the Baptist Ministry. Fortunately, alike for the boy and for the public service, the wiser counsel prevailed and he entered the Royal dockyard at Devonport in 1859. Not very long after his apprenticeship (in 1869), the School of Naval Architecture was founded at South Kensington and White was one of the candidates selected from the various dockyards. He passed at the head of the list in the competitive examination and remained at the school till he entered the construction department of the Admiralty in 1870. In the same year the School was merged in the Royal Naval College at Greenwich, and White, who had become Instructor of Naval Architecture at the school, became one of the Lecturers at the College. At the Admiralty he remained till 1883 holding various appointments, the highest being that of Chief Constructor. In that year he received an offer from Sir William Armstrong which led to his employment by the great Elswick firm. With them he remained till 1885, when, on the resignation of Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, he was recalled to the Admiralty as Director of Naval Construction. White's acceptance of this post was a distinctly patriotic act, for in spite of its high distinction, its emoluments were less than he was receiving, and would have received at Elswick. If he had remained at Armstrongs he would certainly have died a much richer, and probably a happier man. The service of a great commercial firm is free from many of the drawbacks of service under superiors whose actions and decisions must of necessity be influenced very largely by political considerations ; and besides discharging the duties of a difficult post, he had to meet the parliamentary criticism of a former holder of the same office, neither an easy nor an agreeable task. The policy of the Admiralty, and the work of its construction department were the subject of vigorous, even violent, controversy, alike Parliamentary and professional. The Director of Naval construction was not only permitted, but expected to take his part in it. This White did with much effect, both at the professional associations, such as the Institutions of Naval Architects and of Civil Engineers, and before more popular audiences in his lectures and addresses at the Society of Arts, and the British Association. He held his office till 1902, when he resigned. His resignation, partly due to failing health, was precipitated by a blunder made in the construction of a Royal Yacht, for which he was nominally though not actually, responsible. The work which he carried out during his 17 years' tenure of office is described in full detail by Mr. Manning, and the record is a long and honourable one. When he left the Admiralty he was disposed to retire entirely from further work, but the advice and solicitations of several warm friends induced him as his health recovered, to resume. He became This content downloaded from 24.219.46.207 on Mon, 06 Dec 2021 17:09:26 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Print Journal Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Work of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Description An account of the resource The history of Kew Gardens and its role in empire. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arthur William Hill (1875-1941) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce in collaboration with JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/41356412 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal article Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available George Bell & Sons Limited Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Friday, December 28, 1923 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Sami Anders and Olivia Turner Subject The topic of the resource Environmental Appendix Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource JSTOR Digital Collections Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF scan of paper journal Language A language of the resource English Empire